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FURNITURE 

DESIGNING   AND 

DRAUGHTING 

NOTES  ON 

The  Elementary  Forms,  Methods  of  Construction  and 
Dimensions  of  Common  Articles  of  Furniture 


BY 


ALVAN  CROCKER  NYE,  Pn.B. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  FURNITURE  DESIGNING 
PRATT  INSTITUTE,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


THIRD   EDITION   REVISED 
WITH    ADDENDUM,, 


NEW  YORK 
THE  WILLIAM  T.  COMSTOCK  CO. 


Copyright 

By  ALVAN  C.  NYE 
1900-1907 

By 

THE  WILLIAM  T.  COMSTOCK  CO. 
1914 


PREFACE 


THIS  book  for  the  use  of  students,  architects  and  others 
who  at  times  find  it  desirable  to  make  drawings  for 
furniture,  has  been  prepared  from  material  collected  during 
an  experience  of  some  years  as  a  designer  of  furniture  for 
several  of  the  most  important  furniture-makers  in  New  York 
City. 

It  is  assumed  that  a  knowledge  of  how  projection  and  per- 
spective drawings  .are  made  has  been  obtained,  and  that  the 
general  principles  of  design  and  ornamental  forms  are  famil- 
iar to  the  reader.  It  describes  methods  of  construction  as 
far  as  they  relate  to  draughtsman's  work,  but  stops  there, 
for  it  is  not  the  intention  to  make  this  an  instruction  book 
for  those  who  wish  to  become  cabinet-makers.  The  "man  at 
the  bench"  .may,  however,  find  the  parts  relating  to  designing 
of  interest  even  though  the  practical  details  are  already 
known,  and  seem  to  him  incomplete  because  many  mechani- 
cal matters  that  he  realizes  are  necessary  in  making  furni- 
ture are  not  mentioned. 

Construction  details  that  have  been  omitted  were  not 
thought  essential  to  the  draughtsman,  and  if  known  by  him 
would  be  of  no  service  in  making  the  design  or  working 
drawing,  as  they  would  not  appear  on  either. 

A.  C.  N. 

New  York  City,  1900. 


394256 


CONTENTS 


Page. 
Preface    3 

CHAPTER    I. 
Definitions,   Classification,   Proportion 9 

CHAPTER    II 
Tables,  Turnings,  Cross  Veneering 15 

CHAPTER  III. 
Chairs,  Seats,  Sofas,  Upholstery 37 

CHAPTER    IV. 
Casework,  Panelling,  Bedsteads 57 

CHAPTER   V. 
The  Drawer 81 

CHAPTER    VI. 
Ornamentation  of  Furniture * 86 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Theories  of  Design,  Rendering 94 

ADDENDUM. 
The  "Louis"  Furniture  Styles 115 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


Frontispiece.     Louis  XIV.  Desk. 

I.  The  Construction  of  a  Table. 

II.  Chair  and  Table  Legs. 

III.  French  Chair  Leg. 

IV.  Drop  Leaf  Tables. 
V.  Pivoted  Top  Tables. 

VI.  Extension  Tables. 

VII.  Chairs.     Front  and  Side  Elevations. 

VIII.  Arm  Chairs.     Seat  Plans.     Stretchers. 

IX.  Outline  of   Chair  Backs. 

X.  Composition  of  Chair  Backs. 

XL  Construction  and  Upholstery  of  Chairs. 

XII.  Composition  and  Proportion. 

XIII.  Case  Construction. 

XIV.  Mouldings  and   Panels. 

XV.  Hanging  Doors  and  Lids. 

XVI.  The  Drawer. 

XVII.  Ornamental  Chair  Backs. 

XVIII.  Louis  XV.  Table. 

XIX.  Louis  XVI.  Cabinet. 

XX.  Louis  XIV.  Chair. 

XXI.  Louis  XIV.  Chair. 

XXII.  Louis  XV.  Chair. 

XXIII.  Louis  XVI.  Chair. 

XXIV.  Louis  XVI.  Chair. 
XXV.  Louis  XV.  Chair. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE 
TEXT 


Page. 

Acanthus    121 

Bedstead  framing 79 

Card  table  hinge  31 

Effect  of  mouldings   62 

Inlay,   Louis  XIV 126 

Joints  65 

Louis    Styles    Ornaments 119 

Meeting  stiles  for  hinged  doors 75 

Meeting  stiles  for  sliding  doors 75 

Outline  Plans,  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV 114 

Outline    Plans,    Louis    XVI 117 

Pin  hinge   72 

Secretary  hinge 76 

Table   Legs    117 

Table  Legs 123 

Turnings  21 


INDEX 


Arm  chairs,   Plans  of,   46. 

Applique  metal  work,  91. 

Bandy  legs,    16. 

Brackets,  supporting  leaves,  28. 

Banister  back  chair,  45. 

Bearer,  82. 

Bedstead,  78. 

Bookcase,    77. 

Burnt  ornament,   92. 

Built-up   table   top,    24. 

Butt  joint,  66. 

Cane  seats,   56. 

Case  work,  proportion,  composition,  57. 

Case  work,  construction,  65. 

Classification,  9,  10. 

Castors,  47. 

Carving,  86,  87,  88. 

Chair,  plan  of  arm,  46;  arms,  48;  banis- 
ter back,  45;  carved  back,  88;  cano 
seat,  56;  construction,  45;  dimensions, 
46;  elementary  forms,  37;  four  backed, 
46;  for  use  at  table,  48;  Hepplewhite, 
49;  parts  of,  37;  rush  seat,  55;  seat 
dimensions,  47,  48;  stretchers,  46; 
scissor  pattern,  38;  slope  back,  49; 
upholstered,  49;  Windsor,  38;  wood 
seat,  45. 

Cover,  for  upholstery,   55. 

Cross  veneering,  24. 

Composition  of  case  work,    57. 

Construction  of  bedsteads,  79;  drawers, 
81;  case  work,  65;  chairs,  45;  tables, 
23. 

Draw  table,  51. 

Drawer,  hanging,  82;  elides,  85;  triangu- 
lar, 85;  depth  of,  81;  pivoted,  85;  for 
music  cabinets,  83;  construction,  81; 
runners,  82. 

Desk   lids,    76. 

Dimensions  of  bedsteads,  80;  case  work, 
78;  chairs,  56;  component  parts,  11; 
sofas,  56;  tables,  23. 

Disposition  of  ornament,  93. 

Doors,    sliding,    75;    swinging,    72. 

Dove  tail,  67. 

Dowel  Joint,  24,  66. 

Drop  leaves,   27. 

Dust  panel,   82. 

Extension  table,  31. 

French  bandy  legs,   16. 

First  things  considered,  11. 

Finger  joint,  28. 

Four-backed  chair,  etc.,  46. 

Furniture,  what  is  good,  12;  plan,   114. 

Glazing,   71. 

Hepplewhite  chair,   34,   49. 

Hinging,    71. 

Joints,  66;  knuckle,  28;  finger,  28;  mitre, 
66;  mortise  and  tenon,  67;  rule,  27. 


Leaves,    for   table,    27. 

Lining-up,  24. 

Marquetry,  92. 

Mediums,  for  sketching,  63. 

Meeting   stiles,    72. 

Mirrors,    71. 

Mortise  and  tenon,  67. 

Mouldings,  61  effect  of,  62;  ornamenta- 
tion, 65. 

Music  cabinets,    85. 

Ornament,   93;  painted,   92. 

Over-stuffed  work,    53. 

Originality,   94. 

Ormolu,  91. 

Plan,    furniture,   114;   chair  seat,   38. 

Panels,   67. 

Painted  ornament,  92. 

Perforated  carving,   88. 

Pivot  hinge,  72;  top  table,   28. 

Pivoted  drawer,  85. 

Rush  seat  chairs,  55. 

Rule  joint,  22. 

Runners,   82. 

Scale  of  sketches,  96. 

Stability,   of  tables,   22. 

Seats,   plans  of,   38;   wood,   45. 

Sketch,  purpose  of,  95;  scale,  96;  medi- 
ums, 113. 

Stiles,    94. 

Spread,  of  table  feet,  22. 

Stretchers,    chairs,   46;    table,    21. 

Shelving,   77. 

Slides,  for  extension  tables,  32;  drawers, 
88. 

Sliding  doors,   75. 

Shieldback,   38. 

Stiles,  meeting,  72. 

Scissor   chair,    38. 

Sofas,    56. 

Stub  tenon,   67. 

Stumbling  block,   11 

Tables,  construction  of,  23;  draw,  33; 
definition  of,  15;  extension  31;  frame 
of,  22;  height,  22;  leaves,  27;  legs,  16; 
overhang,  22;  parts  of,  15;  spread  of 
feet,  22;  stability  of,  22;  tops,  built- 
up,  24. 

Tracings  paper,  use  of,   96. 

Turnings,    21. 

Tufting,  54. 

Upholstery,    49;    block,    53. 

Varnishing,    86. 

Veneers,    91;   built-up,   24. 

Vernis  Martin,  92. 

Wood,  qaulitles  of,  10;  seat,  45. 

Windsor  chair,   38. 

Wrought  iron,  91. 


FURNITURE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

Definitions,  Classification,  Etc. 

FURNITURE  designing  is  the  art  of  delineating  and  ornament- 
ing household  effects  so  they  become  objects  of  beauty  and 
pleasure  as  well  as  service.  Furniture  designing  means  giving 
thought  and  study  to  the  proposed  plan;  the  seeking  for  the  best 
forms,  sizes,  proportions,  materials,  and  workmanship  to  produce 
what  is  required.  It  may  be  necessary  to  make  several  attempts  be- 
fore success  is  attained,  but  the  result  will  be  the  best  individual 
effort.  In  this  sense  designed  furniture  should  be  useful,  handsome, 
and  well  made  of  properly  selected  material  used  in  an  attractive 
way.  Furniture  may  be  made  without  any  special  study  or  thought, 
the  result  being  mechanical,  careless  and  lacking  in  artistic  qualities. 
A  mechanic  may  make  something  that  is  serviceable  but  extremely 
ugly,  and  without  design.  If,  however,  he  has  the  personal  quality 
that  causes  him  to  take  pride  in  the  appearance  of  his  work  com- 
bined with  the  knowledge  of  how  to  proceed  to  obtain  the  beautiful 
he  will  become  a  designer,  for  he  will  put  his  mind  to  his  work, 
giving  it  a  personality,  independent  of  chance  effects. 

Furniture  made  without  this  thought  and  study  brings  to  the  mind 
at  once  the  feeling  that  something  is  wanting.  Either  the  lines  indi- 
cate an  indecision  in  the  mind  of  the  maker,  or  the  methods  employed 
in  its  construction  show  no  desire  to  produce  the  best  effect  with  the 
material. 

Furniture  can  be  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  use. 

First,  DOMESTIC  FURNITURE,  including  that  for  dwellings 
of  every  rank. 


10  DEFINITIONS,    CLASSIFICATION,    ETC. 

Second,  CIVIL  FURNITURE,  that  for  public  buildings  and 
places  of  business. 

Third,  ECCLESIASTICAL  FURNITURE,  for  churches. 

Furniture  may  also  be  divided  into  two  groups  named  for  the 
methods  of  construction.  The  first,  Framework,  includes  seats,  tables, 
mirrors,  screens,  etc.,  and  all  articles  not  boxed  in.  The  second, 
Casework,  includes  chests,  bureaus,  sideboards,  desks,  etc.,  and  all 
articles  which  are  cased  (boxed)  in  by  panel  work  or  its  equivalent. 

The  materials  from  which  furniture  is  usually  made  are  wood, 
metal  and  stone.  The  use  of  metal  and  stone  need  not  be  considered 
here,  because  these  materials  are  employed  for  extraordinary  furni- 
ture of  a  more  or  less  fixed  architectural  character  not  strictly  within 
the  general  accepted  meaning  of  the  word.  The  natural  material  is 
wood,  which  has  many  qualities  to  recommend  it.  It  is  abundant, 
easily  obtained,  and  easily  prepared  in  convenient  form  for  use.  It 
is  of  light  weight  so  that  objects  made  from  it  are  not  heavy  enough 
to  become  inconvenient,  and  it  is  sufficiently  strong  to  serve  all  prac- 
tical purposes. 

The  ease  with  which  it  is  worked  into  the  forms  desired,  and  the 
facility  with  which  necessary  repairs  may  be  made  are  recommenda- 
tions in  its  favor.  In  addition  to  these  advantages,  which  may  be 
called  technical,  there  are  the  aesthetic  and  physical  reasons  why 
wood  is  superior  to  other  materials.  It  is  agreeable  to  the  eye  in  its 
natural  state,  which  furnishes  a  large  variety  of  colors,  but  if  these 
do  not  meet  the  requirements  stains  of  any  shade  can  be  applied  with 
ease.  It  also  assumes,  under  proper  conditions,  a  polish  of  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  There  are  no  objectionable  sensations  experienced 
when  it  is  touched  by  the  hand,  as  it  is  not  hard  or  harsh,  nor  is  the 
temperature  unpleasant. 

The  kind  of  wood  used  may  have  an  influence  on  the  character  of 
the  design.  Some  woods  are  of  a  coarse,  open  grain  hardly  adapted 
to  small  details  or  fine  work.  Such  woods  are  oak  and  ash.  They  are 
well  suited  to  large,  heavy  articles  for  severe  usage,  and  of  broadly 
executed  design.  Woods  like  mahogany,  satinwood  and  maple  are 
of  a  fine,  close  grain  and  admit  of  a  more  delicate  treatment.  Mould- 
ings and  carvings  in  these  woods  may  be  smaller  in  detail  than  seems 
proper  for  those  of  a  coarser  grain.  This  feeling  is  quite  well  recog- 
nized by  everyone,  so  that  furniture  for  halls,  libraries,  etc.,  is  often 
of  the  coarse  woods,  reserving  those  of  finer  grain  for  the  living- 
room,  parlors  and  bedrooms. 


FIRST    THINGS    CONSIDERED.  II 

The  character  of  the  wood  need  not  affect  the  quality  of  the  de- 
sign, as  each  variety  may  receive  equal  aesthetic  treatment.  The  bold, 
coarse  work  may  have  just  as  much  feeling  expressed  in  the  design 
as  the  more  delicate.  It  is  not  the  material  used  that  is  the  most  im- 
portant consideration,  but  the  form  and  proportion  of  the  article, 
and  the  harmony  of  the  design  with  the  surroundings.  It  is  the 
study  of  these  conditions  that  gives  opportunity  for  the  designer  to 
display  his  skill.  He  asks  himself:  Shall  the  article  be  square  or 
oblong?  Shall  it  be  high  or  low  in  proportion  to  the  width?  Or  if, 
as  frequently  is  the  case,  one  or  two  dimensions  are  given,  what  will 
be  the  best  proportion  for  the  other? 

After  the  general  proportion  and  form  is  determined,  then  the 
dimensions  of  the  component  parts  are  considered,  and  it  may  hap- 
pen that  these  will  be  the  only  ones  left  for  the  designer,  as  the  con- 
ditions of  the  problem  sometimes  fix  all  other  sizes.  By  the 
component  parts  is  understood  (taking  a  table  as  an  example)  the 
relation  of  the  size  of  the  leg  to  the  whole,  the  thickness  of  the  top, 
and  its  projection ;  the  depth  of  the  frame,  etc.  Such  questions  must 
be  answered  for  every  article,  and  on  the  solution  depends  the  qual- 
ity of  the  design. 

The  stumbling  block  for  beginners  in  design  is  the  habit  of  think- 
ing in  feet  and  inches.  One  of  the  first  questions  usually  asked  by 
students  is,  how  many  inches  wide  shall  this,  or  that,  be  made? 
There  is  a  feeling  that  because  it  cannot  be  answered  at  once  it  is 
impossible  to  make  the  drawing  correctly.  It  is  not  necessary,  in 
most  instances,  to  know  the  figure,  as  the  dimension  is  dependent 
entirely  on  the  sense  of  proportion  and  practicability.  All  dimen- 
sions fixed  by  common  usage  are  known  or  given  to  the  designer; 
the  others  should  be  determined  by  the  knowledge  obtained  from 
experience  and  observation.  As  the  designer  becomes  proficient  he 
learns  that  within  limits  a  square  post  of  a  given  size  may  be  used  in 
certain  places,  but  whether  it  will  look  better  a  little  larger  or  a 
little  smaller  is  determined  by  judgment. 

The  sizes  of  material  found  in  stock  need  not  interfere  with  the 
expressing  of  ideas  that  may  occur.  Lumber  can  be  obtained  of 
almost  any  size  desired,  and  if  it  is  not  at  hand  the  next  largest 
dimension  can  readily  be  cut  down,  at  the  small  expense  for  waste 
and  labor,  which  in  special  work  is  hardly  to  be  considered.  It  cer- 
tainly is  not  advisable  to  spoil  a  good  design  in  order  to  use  material 
without  cutting  a  little  to  waste. 


12  DEFINITIONS,    CLASSIFICATION,    ETC. 

A  good  piece  of  furniture  must  be  adapted  to  the  intended  use, 
and  it  should  not  defy  the  laws  of  nature  even  in  appearance.  It  is 
not  sufficient  for  it  to  be  strong,  but  it  must  appear  so,  that  no 
thought  of  weakness  may  occur;  nor  ought  it  to  appear  unstable.  It 
must  be  well  constructed,  otherwise  it  soon  becomes  broken  or 
rickety;  and  when  new,  if  carelessly  made,  there  will  be  something 
about  it  to  cause  dissatisfaction.  It  ought  to  be  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
not  only  in  design  but  in  workmanship,  and  its  form  should  express 
its  purpose.  Excessive  ornamentation  is  to  be  avoided.  It  is  better 
to  have  too  little  ornament  than  too  much. 

Construction  has  been  placed  second  in  these  requirements  for 
good  furniture,  believing  that  by  following  the  laws  of  utility  and 
construction  natural  and  rational  forms  will  be  obtained.  A  de- 
signer should,  then,  have  a  little  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  con- 
struction, and  in  the  following  chapters  the  usual  methods  will  be 
described  as  far  as  is  necessary  for  the  needs  of  a  draughtsman. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  TABLE 


FRAflC 

TO  THE  LEG 


FRAME  TENDED 
INTO    THE  LEA 


CLEAT  SCREWED 
TO    Top. 


SECTION  <f  A  BUILT-UP  TOP 


I    CR05S   VLNEtR/ 
^  VENEER. 


LEfl 


T°P  SECURED 
BLOCKS  TONGUEOINTO 

FRAttC 


CHAPTER    II. 

Tables. 

'T*HE  table  consists  of  a  flat,  level  surface,  suitable  to  receive 
1  whatever  may  be  placed  upon  it,  supported  on  one  or  more 
uprights.  The  word  table  properly  applies  to  the  top,  which  in  early 
times  was  called  a  board,  and  it  was,  indeed,  nothing  more,  the  sup- 
ports being  trestles  not  attached  in  any  way  to  the  top  itself.  The 
top  may  be  made  of  wood,  marble,  glass,  etc.,  and  is  spoken  of  ac- 
cordingly as  a  wooden  table,  marble  table,  glass  table,  etc.  If  the 
material  is  not  mentioned,  it  may  be  supposed  to  be  of  wood.  The 
name  of  the  material  is  sometimes  linked  with  the  geometrical  form 
of  the  top ;  thus,  a  square  table,  a  circular  marble  table,  an  oval  slate 
table,  etc. 

Tables  are  made  high  or  low,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  used,  and  may  be  either  with  or  without  drawers.  They  are 
composed  of  three  parts — the  top,  the  frame  and  the  legs.  Plate  I. 
The  top  has  been  described  above.  The  frame  is  composed  of  hori- 
zontal rails  immediately  beneath  the  top  and  parallel  with  its  edge. 
It  is  sometimes  omitted  on  small  tables,  called  "stands,"  but  is  com- 
mon for  the  larger  varieties.  It  serves  as  a  means  of  binding  the  sup- 
ports and  top  together  as  well  as  strengthening  the  top,  which  might 
otherwise  sag  beneath  its  load.  The  depth  of  frame  gives  apparent 
as  well  as  real  solidity  to  the  whole  structure.  The  legs  aire  the  sup- 
ports for  the  table,  and  may  be  secured  in  several  ways  to  the  frame, 
or  its  equivalent.  There  may  be  but  one  leg,  or  post,  directly  under 
the  center  of  the  top,  and  ending  at  the  floor  in  a  spreading  foot, 
thus  forming  a  "pillar  table."  There  may  be  two  uprights,  one  at  the 
middle  of  each  end  of  a  rectangular  top,  terminating  in  spreading 
feet,  usually  connected  by  a  horizontal  rail  near  the  floor.  There 
may  be  three,  four  or  more  legs,  but  four  are  most  frequently  used. 
These  legs  may  be  of  an  endless  variety  of  shapes,  and  decorated  by 
mouldings,  carving,  inlay,  etc. 

On  Plate  II.  are  shown  twelve  legs,  which  can  be  termed  elemen- 


16  TABLES. 

tary  forms,  as  nearly  all  others  can  be  reduced  to  one  of  these.  They 
are  shown  as  chair  legs,  but  they  differ  from  table  legs  in  proportions 
only.  By  comparing  the  plans  and  elevations,  the  drawings  explain 
themselves  clearly;  but  it  is  desirable  to  study  particularly  numbers 
II  and  12.  Eleven  is  the  "bandy  leg,"  with  the  ball  and  claw-foot 
used  on  "Dutch"  and  "Colonial"  furniture.  In  many  ways  it  re- 
sembles 12,  which  is  the  "Louis  XV.,"  or  "French  bandy  leg."  This 
latter  is  much  lighter,  more  graceful  and  ornamental  than  the  Dutch 
form,  but  it  at  times  seems  too  frail  to  support  the  weight  it  carries ; 
and,  again,  the  curved  lines  make  it  appear  as  if  bending  beneath  the 
strain.  In  many  of  the  exaggerated  patterns  of  these  legs  the  vio- 
lent curvature  causes  the  defects  not  only  to  become  more  prominent, 
but  actually  makes  the  leg  weak.  If  the  curvature  is  great,  the  ver- 
tical grain  of  the  wood  crosses  it  at  one  or  more  points,  and  at  each 
of  these  places  there  is  danger  of  the  leg  breaking.  By  examining 
the  drawings  Nos.  n  and  12  (a  larger  drawing  of  12  in  three  posi- 
tions is  shown  on  Plate  III.)  it  will  be  seen  that  a  vertical  line  may 
be  drawn  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  leg  without  intersecting 
its  curved  outline.  This  vertical  line  represents,  then,  a  portion  of 
the  stick  from  which  the  leg  is  cut  that  has  not  had  the  strength 
weakened.  The  leg  increases  in  strength  directly  in  proportion  as 
the  distance  betwen  the  contour  lines  and  sueli  a*  vertical  widens. 
The  draughtsman  is  to  observe  that,  although  moulded  and  cut  in 
irregular  forms,  the  cross-section  of  this  leg  at  any  place  is  prac- 
tically square,  and  that  in  making  it  a  square  stick^s  first  sawn  so  a* 
to  have  the  shape  shown  as  front  and  side  elevation,  Plate  in.,  and 
then  turned  over  at  right  angles,  on  the  vertical  axis,  and  thlfc  same 
form  cut  again.  As  a  result  the  diagonal  view  will  curve  as  shown. 
When  the  leg  is  complete  and  casually  examined  it  is  seen  in  the 
diagonal  view.  It  is  with  the  recollection  of  such  a  view  in  mind 
that  the  designer  too  frequently  lays  out  the  curve  for  the  front  and 
side  elevation,  giving  them  the  sharp  sweep  he  really  intends  for  the 
diagonal  resultant  curve.  When  the  work  is  made  from  such  a 
drawing  the  draughtsman  is  surprised  to  find  how  great  the  curve 
is,  In  designing  the  bandy  leg  the  proper  method  is  to  draw  its 
three  elevations  and  plans  as  on  Plate  III.  and  study  the  outlines 
carefully  till  sure  they  are  right. 

Whatever  may  be  the  shape  of  table  legs,  they  should  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  dimensions  of  the  top,  that  they  may  not  seem  either 
too  frail  or  stronger  than  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  support. 


CHAIR  AND  TABLE  LEGS 


PlAR  II. 


m 


© 


;  . J 


OtVATIOHS 
RAN5 


-•*• 


<ELEVATION5 


fLANS 


M 


FRENCH  CHAIR  LEG 


FLATE 


DIAGONAL    ELLVM10N. 


•It- 


10- 


AH05IDE 


I 


DIAGONAL 


3CALL 


TURNINGS. 


21 


Occasionally  it  may  be  desirable  to  make  them  so  small  and  delicate 
that  the  table  becomes  shaky,  owing  to  the  elasticity  of  the  wood, 
though  they  may  be  quite  strong  enough  in  appearance,  and  in 
reality  to  sustain  the  weight  intended  to  be  placed  on  them.  When 
such  is  the  case  the  legs  can  be  connected,  near  the  floor,  by  hori- 
zontal braces,  known  as  stretchers.  Plate  VIII.  shows  three  arrange- 
ments of  stretchers  as  applied  to  chairs,  and  those  for  tables  are 
similar.  Stretchers  are  sometimes  used  for  aesthetic  reasons  when 

TURNINGS 


© 


not  needed  to  stiffen  the  support.  Tables  having  legs  like  Nos.  7 
and  8,  Plate  II.,  do  not  look  well  without  stretchers;  the  baluster 
forms  of  the  turnings  and  the  heavy  foot  of  each  leg  seeming  to 
demand  a  framework  binding  the  supports  together. 

Turnings  are  used  continually  in  the  construction  of  furniture,  and 
they  always  appear  smaller  than  a  square  stick  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions. This  is  apparent  in  the  above  illustrations.  No.  I  shows  the 
projection  of  the  corner  of  a  parallelepiped  beyond  the  inscribed 


22  TABLES. 

cylinder  turned  from  it.  The  angular  projection  exists  whenever  an 
abrupt  change  from  a  square  to  a  turned  section  is  made.  As  this 
is  objectionable  in  furniture  work,  it  is  cut  away  by  rounding  off  the 
angle,  as  in  No.  2,  or  by  moulding  it,  as  in  No.  3.  Nevertheless,  if, 
as  in  these  examples,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  and  the  side  of 
the  square  are  the  same,  the  turning  appears  so  much  smaller  than 
the  square  portion  of  the  stick  that  the  transition  is  too  great. 

When  the  design  will  admit,  the  square  parts  of  the  stick  are  cut 
down  after  the  turning  is  made,  so  that  they  are  a  trifle  smaller  than 
the  turned  portions.  This  makes  the  two  sections  seem  more  nearly 
of  the  same  dimensions,  and  is  shown  in  No.  4,  where  a  torus  and 
fillet  are  also  introduced  to  make  the  change  of  form  more  gradual. 
This  same  feature  is  shown  in  No.  5,  where  the  angles  of  the  square 
are  cut  away.  The  square  is  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  turn- 
ing, and  the  torus  is  introduced  to  grade  the  transition.  No.  6  is  a 
longitudinal  section  of  No.  5.  The  use  of  the  torus  or  a  bead  be- 
tween the  square  and  turned  parts  of  a  post  seems  desirable  in  most 
cases,  whatever  the  profile  of  the  turning.  No.  7  shows  it  in  use  on 
a  twisted  turning. 

The  depth  of  the  frame  of  the  table  is  largely  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual taste.  If,  however,  the  table  is  one  at  which  a  person  is  to  sit, 
with  his  knees  beneath  it,  the  frame  must  not  be  so  deep  as  to  reduce 
the  space  between  its  lower  edge  and  the  floor  to  less  than  two  feet. 

An  important  condition  of  beauty  in  a  table  is  its  stability.  It 
should  not  appear  insecure  on  its  feet,  as  happens  if  the  legs  are 
placed  too  far  beneath  the  top.  A  safe  guide  is  not  to  make  the 
spread  of  the  feet  of  a  table  less  than  two-thirds  the  spread  of  the 
top;  or,  in  other  words,  the  overhang  is  one-sixth  of  the  top.  The 
overhang  may  be  considerably  more  than  this  before  the  table  be- 
comes dangerously  insecure,  but  it  will  have,  nevertheless,  an  ap- 
pearance of  instability,  especially  if  the  width  of  the  top  is  less  than 
the  height  above  the  floor. 

It  is  well  to  round  off  slightly  the  corners  of  rectangular  tables, 
that  they  may  not  present  a  sharp  angle. 

The  size  of  a  table  is  determined  by  its  use  and  the  location  it  is  to 
occupy.  Unless  intended  for  a  special  purpose  it  is  thirty  inches 
high. 

Possibly  the  most  important  uses  to  which  tables  are  put  are  those 
of  dining  and  writing.  For  either  of  these  a  table  thirty  inches  high 
can  be  and  is  used  continually,  but  there  are  those  who  find  this 


DIMENSIONS    OF    TABLES.  23 

somewhat  too  high.  A  dining  table  should  be  sufficiently  low  that  a 
person  need  not  raise  the  elbows  when  cutting  his  food,  and  that  his 
plate  rests  well  below  him.  If  a  writing  table  is  too  high,  it  is  tire- 
some to  sit  at  and  write.  Many  dining  tables  and  writing  tables  are, 
therefore,  made  but  twenty-nine  inches  high.  The  side  table  used  in 
dining  rooms  as  a  place  from  which  to  serve  dishes  or  to  carve 
should  be  thirty-six  inches  high. 

A  dressing  table  is  made  thirty  inches  high,  unless  the  person  to 
use  it  requests  that  it  be  made  otherwise.  Parlor,  fancy  tables,  etc., 
intended  for  ornamental  use  only,  are  made  to  correspond  with  the 
surroundings  of  the  rooms  in  which  they  are  placed,  and  may  be  any 
desired  height,  as  they  are  neither  intended  to  sit  or  stand  at.  The 
following  list  will  give  the  dimensions  of  tables  of  average  sizes  that 
have  been  made  and  found  satisfactory.  It  will  serve  as  a  guide  or 
starting  point  in  laying  out  new  designs: 

DIMENSIONS   OF  TABLES 

Variety.                            Length.        Width.  Height.  Remarks. 

Bedroom 31  22  29 

18  18  30                     Commode. 

Bijou 30  22  30 

Carving  table 42  20  36 

Dressing  table 36  20  30 

Extension  table 66  66  30                      Round. 

54  54  30                      Square. 

Library  table 51  41  30                     Oval. 

'  42  27  29 

'  54  34  29 

'  60  36  29 

Tea  table 13  13  20                     Round. 

'     18  18  24 

"     f  23  23  18                      Upper  Shelf.) 

'     130  17  29                      LowerShelf.f 

Note:  All  dimensions  are  in  inchei. 

The  parts  of  a  table  have  already  been  named;  it  remains  to  see 
how  they  are  put  together. 

The  frame  is  joined  to  the  legs  either  by  the  mortise  and  tenon  or 
by  doweling.  The  former  joint  was  the  old  way  of  framing,  but 
since  the  introduction  of  dowels  the  tenon  has  largely  gone  out  of 
use  among  furniture  makers.  They  consider  it  old-fashioned.  And 
owing  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  tenon  or  the  carelessness  with  which 
it  is  made,  it  does  not  seem  as  strong  or  equal  to  a  dowel- joint. 

The  mortise  and  tenon  consists  of  a  tongue  (tenon)  cut  on  the 
end  of  one  of  the  joined  pieces  so  as  to  fit  tightly  in  a  cavity  (mor- 
tise) sunk  in  the  other  piece.  In  table  work  the  tenon  is  on  the  end 
of  the  frame,  and  may  or  may  not  be  its  full  width,  while  the  mortise 
is  in  the  leg.  Plate  I. 


24  TABLES. 

The  dowel  joint  derives  its  name  from  the  dowel,  a  wooden  pin, 
used  for  fastening  the  two  pieces  together  by  inserting  part  of  its 
length  in  one  piece,  the  rest  of  it  entering  a  corresponding  hole  in 
the  other.  Where  possible,  more  than  one  dowel  is  used.  In  table 
work  two  or  more  are  fitted  in  holes  bored  for  them  in  the  end  of  the 
frame,  and  in  the  proper  position  on  the  legs  are  corresponding  holes 
in  which  the  dowels  fit,  and  are  glued  when  the  two  parts  are  brought 
together.  Some  small  tables  are  constructed  without  a  frame;  in 
place  of  it  there  is  a  wooden  cleat  fastened  to  the  underside  of  the 
top  and  the  full  diameter  of  the  leg  is  inserted  in  this  block;  or  if 
the  leg  is  of  large  size  it  is  tenoned  into  the  block. 

The  top  of  a  table  may  be  solid  or  veneered.  When  small  and 
cheap  work  is  desired,  it  can  be  made  of  solid  wood ;  but  otherwise 
it  should  be  built  up  and  veneered.  Solid  wood  tops  shrink,  crack, 
or  warp.  The  only  sure  way  of  avoiding  these  unfortunate  occur- 
rences is  to  "build-up"  the  top.  The  building  up  process  consists  in 
constructing  a  core  of  some  common,  well-dried,  lifeless  wood,  pre- 
ferably chestnut  or  pine.  This  core  is  of  several  strips  of  wood 
doweled  together  at  the  edges  until  a  board  is  made  about  the  size  of 
the  required  top.  These  strips  are  arranged  in  a  way  that  the  annu- 
lar rings  curve  in  opposite  directions  in  each  alternate  piece.  The 
core  is  next  cross-veneered  on  both  sides  with  hardwood,  generally 
oak.  A  cross-veneering  is  laid  so  that  the  grain  is  at  right  angles  to 
that  of  the  wood  on  which  it  is  applied.  In  table  work  it  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  grain  of  the  core  and  the  finish  veneer ;  both  of  these 
naturally  follow  the  length  of  the  top.  All  around  the  edge  of  the 
top,  after  it  is  cross-veneered,  is  fastened  a  strip  of  the  finish  wood 
of  the  table  (Plate  I.).  Finally,  both  sides  are  again  veneered  with 
the  finish  wood;  that  is,  if  the  wood  is  not  too  expensive.  If  it  is 
costly,  a  cheaper  veneer  is  placed  on  the  underside. 

When  the  design  calls  for  the  edge  of  the  top  to  appear  thick,  it  is 
a  needless  waste  of  material  to  construct  it  of  wood  the  full  thick- 
ness, besides  making  an  unnecessarily  heavy  piece  of  furniture.  To 
avoid  this  and  yet  obtain  the  appearance  wanted,  a  frame  of  wood  is 
fastened  to  the  underside  of  the  otherwise  thin  top,  giving  the  thick- 
ness required.  This  frame  is  called  the  lining  piece,  and  the  top  is 
said  to  be  lined  up. 

The  method  of  fastening  the  top  to  the  frame  of  the  table  varies 
with  the  class  of  work  and  the  size.  If  it  is  a  small  table,  no  special 
care  is  taken,  the  fastening  consisting  of  screws  driven  through  the 


DROP    LEAF   TABLES 


PLATE  IV. 


FIDIIJG    BRACKETS   f?R-  SUPPORTING    LEAVES 


TABLE    LEAVES.  27 

rail  into  the  underside  of  the  top.  If  the  rail  is  narrow  and  thick 
enough,  the  screw  is  set  straight  through  it.  If,  however,  it  is  a 
wide  rail,  the  screws  are  driven  in  recesses  cut  for  them  on  the  inner 
side.  Most  tables  are  too  large  to  admit  of  this  method.  A  top 
fastened  as  just  described  is  held  fast  to  the  frame,  so  if  shrinkage 
takes  place  there  is  a  strain  somewhere  that  may  result  in  a  cracked 
top.  To  allow  for  any  movement  that  may  occur,  short  blocks  hav- 
ing a  tongue  that  fits  securely  in  a  groove  cut  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  table  frame  are  screwed  to  the  underside  of  the  top.  These 
blocks  hold  the  top  firmly  in  position,  and  yet  if  a  shrinkage  takes 
place  they  are  free  to  move  in  the  grooved  frame. 

Tables  are  frequently  provided  with  a  drawer  either  in  the  frame 
or  hung  beneath  the  top  on  cleats.  How  drawers  are  made,  and  the 
different  kinds,  are  described  in  Chapter  V. 

There  are  occasions  that  require  a  table  larger  than  it  is  convenient 
to  keep  standing  continually  in  a  room.  In  early  times,  when  tables 
were  nothing  more  than  boards  resting  on  trestles,  if  they  were  not 
needed  the  board  was  turned  up  against  the  wall  and  the  trestles 
stowed  away.  When  the  top  and  the  supports  became  fastened 
together,  methods  were  invented  for  reducing  the  size  of  the  table, 
that  it  might  not  take  up  too  much  space,  or  for  enlarging  it  for 
special  purposes.  One  of  these  methods  is  the  use  of  leaves  or  flaps 
that  fold  down  against  the  side  of  the  legs.  Two  things  are  to  be 
observed  in  such  tables — the  way  the  leaves  are  hinged,  and  how 
they  are  supported  when  raised. 

In  cheap  work  the  edges  of  the  leaves  and  top,  where  they  meet, 
are  cut  straight  and  square,  forming  a  plain  joint,  and  the  leaf  is 
hung  with  a  hinge  on  the  underside.  Plate  IV.,  No.  i.  When 
hung  in  this  way  a  small  crack  is  seen  between  the  top  and  the  leaf 
as  the  latter  hangs  down,  and  the  hinge  also  shows. 

In  better  work  both  these  things  are  considered  faults,  and  to 
avoid  them  the  rule  joint  is  used.  Plate  IV.,  No.  2.  This  joint  is 
made  by  moulding  both  the  edge  of  the  leaf  and  the  top  where  they 
meet,  the  moulding  on  the  leaf  being  the  reverse  of  that  on  the  top. 
The  top  is  cut  with  a  projecting  tongue,  rounded  like  a  quarter  cylin- 
der, and  the  leaf  is  hollowed  to  receive  it.  The  hinges  are  sunk  into 
the  underside  of  the  top  and  leaf,  with  their  center  corresponding 
with  the  center  of  the  quarter  round  moulding  of  the  meeting  edges. 
Then  as  the  leaf  swings  up  or  down  its  rebated  edge  fits  snugly 
against  the  moulded  edge  of  the  top.  The  hinge  is  practically  con- 
cealed and  there  is  no  open  joint. 


28  TABLES. 

There  are  small  tables  made  with  two  leaves  hinged  in  a  similar 
way  to  that  just  described,  so  when  both  are  down  the  table  is  no 
wider  than  the  cylinder  plus  the  thickness  of  the  leaves. 

Leaves  may  be  supported  by  brackets  attached  to  the  frame  and 
swinging  out  under  them.  The  brackets  may  be  hung  with  metal 
hinges,  but  better  ways  are  illustrated  in  Plate  IV.,  Nos.  3  and  4. 
These  drawings  show  folding  brackets  somewhat  similar  in  construc- 
tion made  by  fastening  to  the  side  rail  of  the  table  frame  a  block 
with  one  end  cut  so  as  to  interlock  with  one  end  of  the  bracket.  A 
metal  pin  through  the  two  pieces  where  they  interlock  serves  as  an 
axis  on  which  the  bracket  turns.  In  No.  3,  the  finger  joint,  the 
corners  of  the  working  parts  are  beveled  off,  that  the  bracket  may 
turn.  In  No.  4,  the  knuckle  joint,  they  are  rounded  so  the  parts  fit 
clearly  and  are  in  contact  in  whatever  position  the  bracket  may  be. 
The  finger  joint  can  be  made  the  strongest,  as  more  wood  may  be 
left  between  the  pin  axis  and  the  ends  of  the  tongues  than  in  the 
other.  The  knuckle  joint  is  considered  the  neatest,  but  it  is  more 
difficult  to  construct,  and  as  the  bracket  is  hidden  from  view  the 
difference  in  appearance  does  not  warrant  its  use. 

Sometimes,  when  the  depth  of  the  frame  will  permit,  a  portion  of 
it  may  be  cut  so  as  swing  on  a  pin  at  the  middle,  and,  thus,  when 
turned  at  right  angles  to  the  frame,  one  half  is  beneath  the  top,  the 
rest  acting  as  a  support  to  the  leaf.  Plate  IV.,  No.  5. 

Bracket  supports  are  not  strong,  and  a  table  with  a  large  leaf  is 
unstable.  To  obviate  this,  tables  are  made  with  a  leg  that  swings 
out  under  the  leaf,  giving  it  support,  and  stability  to  the  table.  When 
such  a  table  has  a  stretcher,  the  movable  leg  is  strengthened  by 
fastening  it  to  a  hinged  bracket  at  the  stretcher  level,  in  addition  to 
the  one  on  the  frame.  Another  way  of  supporting  drop  leaves  is 
to  arrange  slides  that  may  be  pulled  out  from  the  table  frame  beneath 
the  leaves  when  they  are  raised. 

The  tables  described  thus  far  have  the  top  fixed,  but  there  are 
those  with  the  tops  pivoted,  so  when  they  are  turned  about  the  pivot 
a  quarter  way  round,  the  leaves  will  be  supported  by  the  frame  of 
the  table,  which  in  the  revolved  position  of  the  top  lies  beneath  them. 
Two  varieties  of  this  style  are  illustrated  on  Plate  V.  The  first  is  an 
old-style  drop-leaf  table  pivoted  at  the  middle  of  the  top.  By  raising 
both  leaves  and  turning  the  top  on  its  pivot  the  ends  of  the  frame  are 
brought  beneath  the  leaves  to  support  them.  The  second  table  is  in 
more  common  use.  The  top  is  of  two  parts,  of  the  same  size  and 
shape,  hinged  together  so  one  part  folds  over  on  the  other.  When 


PIVOTED  TOP  TABLES 


msm 


EXTENSION     TABLES.  31 

folded  the  top  is  but  half  the  size  it  is  when  open,  and  can  be  turned 
on  the  pivot  to  a  position  over  one  end  of  the  frame  with  the  hinged 
edges  directly  across  the  middle.  The  upper  leaf  may  then  be  un- 
folded and  will  rest  on  the  other  end  of  the  frame.  Such  tables  are 
usually  square  when  open,  and  are  spoken  of  as  card  tables. 


:K 


© 


"I 

,,-^^^.JI 

CARD -TABU  Hmot. 

The  hinges  used  for  joining  the  two  parts  of  the  top  are  not  ordi- 
nary butts.  They  are  of  a  special  form,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
adjoining  illustration,  and  are  placed  at  each  end  of  the  leaves,  with 
the  screws  driven  into  the  edges.  This  avoids  the  appearance  of  any 
objectionable  metal  work  on  the  surface  of  the  table  top,  as  would 
be  the  case  if  ordinary  butts  were  used  with  their  entire  flaps  ex- 
posed to  view.  The  card  table  hinge  has  no  projecting  knuckle  above 
the  surface  of  the  table,  as  its  parts,  instead  of  turning  on  a  single 
pin,  are  joined  by  a  link  turning  on  a  pin  in  each  flap  of  the  hinge. 
This  link  is  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  table  when  the  leaves  are 
closed,  and  flush  with  the  top  when  they  are  open.  There  are  other 
forms  of  this  hinge  available. 

Other  ways  of  increasing  the  size  of  tables  are  shown  on  Plate 
VI.  These  are  extension  tables. 

The  upper  one  is  the  old  "draw  table,"  and  is  not  used  much  now. 
A  study  of  the  drawings  will  show  that  the  leaves  enlarging  the 
table  are  slides  that  pull  out  from  beneath  the  top.  Each  slide  is 
about  half  the  length  of  the  top,  so  the  table  is  nearly  doubled  in 
length  when  both  are  pulled  out.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that  to  be 
of  service  the  slide  must  be  pulled  out  its  full  length ;  otherwise  the 
top  and  slide  are  not  on  the  same  level.  This  means  that  there  are 
but  two  changes  in  size  for  this  kind  of  a  table.  Either  it  is  in- 
creased by  the  whole  of  one  leaf  or  by  both.  The  top  of  the  table  is 
not  solidly  fastened  to  the  frame,  but  is  free  to  move  vertically  a 
little,  though  prevented  from  moving  in  any  other  direction  by  keys 
fastened  to  its  underside  and  passing  through  a  rail  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  leaves,  fastened  to  the  frame.  Each  side  has  two  bear- 


32  TABLES. 

ing  pieces  fastened  to  its  underside,  one  at  each  end.  The  bearing 
pieces  are  as  long  as  the  frame  of  the  table,  or  a  little  longer,  and 
when  the  slide  is  drawn  out  one  end  of  them  bears  against  the  under- 
side of  the  rail  to  which  the  top  is  keyed,  while  their  lower  edge  rests 
on  the  frame  of  the  table,  notched  to  receive  it.  They  are  cut  at  the 
proper  level,  so  when  drawn  out  the  top  and  slide  are  on  a  level,  and 
the  slide  is  held  securely  in  place  against  the  edge  of  the  top. 

The  common  extension  table  is  familiar  to  everyone.  The  illus- 
tration presents  it  in  the  simplest  form.  It  is  really  a  table  with  a 
telescopic  frame,  and  provided  with  extra  sections  of  a  top  that  may 
be  added  till  the  frame  is  extended  its  full  length.  The  leaves  are 
made  of  sizes  from  twelve  inches  to  twenty  wide,  and  the  tables  are 
made  to  extend  as  desired,  the  average  being  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
feet. 

Each  manufacturer  has  his  own  method  of  constructing  the  tele- 
scopic frame,  or  slides,  as  they  are  called,  the  differences  depending 
on  patented  devices  for  holding  the  slides  together.  The  principle, 
however,  is  the  same  in  all.  Plate  VI.  illustrates  a  section  through 
two  slides,  showing  one  device.  The  sides  of  the  slides  are  grooved 
to  receive  keys  that  dovetail  them  together.  Each  slide,  when  pulled 
out  to  the  extreme,  laps  over  those  adjoining  it  about  one-third,  and 
stops  are  provided  to  prevent  their  being  separated  more  than  this. 
The  slides  are  of  wood,  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  thick,  nearly 
as  wide  as  the  table  frame  is  deep  and  about  as  long  as  the  under- 
side of  the  table  when  closed  will  permit.  The  number  of  slides 
depends  on  the  length  to  which  the  table  is  to  be  extended.  There 
are  two  sets — an  odd  number  on  each  side  of  the  table.  The  outer 
pair  are  screwed  firmly  to  the  underside  of  one-half  of  the  top,  and 
the  inner  pair  to  the  other  half.  All  the  slides  except  these  are  free 
to  move.  As  most  tables  extend  too  much  for  the  slides  to  support 
the  weight  at  the  middle,  it  is  usual  to  provide  a  center  leg.  This 
leg  is  fastened  to  the  middle  of  a  transverse  rail  screwed  securely  to 
the  middle  slide  of  each  group. 

The  frame  of  the  table,  when  extended,  is  separated  at  the  middle, 
and  if  the  cloth  cover  is  not  used  the  slides  are  exposed  to  view.  This 
interrupted  frame  is  unsightly,  and  each  leaf  may  be  provided  with 
its  section  of  frame,  so  that  when  in  place  no  gap  is  left  between  the 
extended  ends.  There  are  card  tables  made  so  two  of  the  legs  and 
one  side  can  be  pulled  out  to  support  a  leaf  when  it  is  open.  They 
are  small  extension  tables,  the  frame  itself  forming  a  part  of  the 
slides. 


EXTENSION   TABLES 


A  DRAW  TABLE 


y^X  SLIDE  DRAWN   OOt 


SLIDE  CLOSED 


tHLARGED   SECTI°fl   5H°Wlfto 
KEY    TKROlKiH    RAIL  *A   TO 
H°LD    PP  IN  PLACE.) 


SECTI°M   THROUGH 
TO? 


s 


O 

i 

w 

w 


II LL 


CHAPTER    III. 

Chairs,  Seats,  Sofas* 

THE  parts  of  a  chair  are  the  legs,  the  seat  frame,  the  back,  and 
the  arms.  Plate  XL 

The  seat  frame,  and  in  most  instances  all  the  rails,  are  doweled  to 
the  legs  and  back  posts.  The  seat  frame  is  stiffened  by  corner  blocks 
screwed  securely  to  the  inner  side.  If  these  blocks  are  wide  and 
well  fastened,  they  add  very  materially  to  the  strength  of  the  chair. 
The  upholstery  blocks  mentioned  on  page  31  also  stiffen  the  framing. 
The  conditions  given  the  designer  usually  determine  the  use  of  the 
chair  and  how  much  of  it  is  to  be  upholstered.  With  this  informa- 
tion given,  he  is  free  to  make  the  rest  as  he  likes,  and  he  decides 
upon  the  form  and  proportion  of  the  chair  as  a  whole  without  respect 
to  detail.  This  may  be  studied  in  plan  and  elevation  at  a  convenient 
scale,  or  perhaps  in  perspective,  if  the  idea  is  sufficiently  clear  in  the 
mind  to  do  so.  It  is,  however,  only  by  means  of  the  projection 
drawings  that  the  true  forms  of  the  different  parts  may  be  known, 
and  even  though  the  sketch  is  made  at  once  without  their  aid  a 
knowledge  of  what  they  are  like  is  necessary.  Chairs,  when  drawn 
in  side  elevation,  assume  one  of  the  five  elementary  forms  shown  on 
Plate  VII.,  where  attention  is  called  to  the  relation  of  the  supporting 
members  to  a  vertical  line.  These  outlines  are  drawn  from  actual 
examples,  and  are  at  the  same  scale  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

The  front  elevation  will  appear  like  one  of  the  three  types  shown 
on  this  plate.  The  one  on  the  right,  if  drawn  in  side  elevation,  would 
have  a  straight  back  and  straight  legs;  the  one  on  the  left  would 
have  the  side  elevation,  like  one  of  the  first  three  illustrated ;  the  one 
in  the  middle  would  appear  in  side  elevation  much  the  same  as  it 
does  in  the  front,  i.  e.,  all  legs  and  the  back  inclined.  It  is  a  drawing 
of  a  Windsor  chair,  with  a  solid  wood  seat,  sometimes  called  the 
saddle  seat,  because  of  its  shape.  The  legs  and  back  posts  are 
fastened  in  this  seat  by  inserting  the  full  size  of  the  turning  in  holes 


38  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    SOFAS. 

bored  for  them,  and  the  seat  frame  is  omitted ;  but  the  legs  are  tied 
together  by  stretchers. 

Italian  and  German  chairs,  with  backs  and  legs  of  solid  boards 
elaborately  carved,  appear  in  the  same  inclined  form  when  drawn  in 
elevation.  The  "scissor"  pattern  was  originally  a  folding  chair,  but 
although  the  form  is  retained  it  is  not  always  made  to  fold,  though 
both  folding  and  fixed  chairs  present  a  similar  elevation.  The  plan 
of  a  chair  seat  approximates  a  square,  a  triangle,  or  a  circle.  The 
principal  varieties,  with  the  position  of  the  legs  in  relation  to  the 
frame  indicated  by  the  shading,  are  shown  on  Plate  VIII.  The 
square  plan,  though  not  uncommon,  is  less  frequently  seen  than  the 
trapezoidal.  This  latter  is  perhaps  the  most  used,  either  with  the 
straight  frame,  as  on  the  left  of  the  dotted  line  in  the  illustration,  or 
curved,  as  on  the  right.  Triangular  seats,  though  used  in  olden 
times,  are  not  common  now,  except  for  corner  seats. 

The  circular  and  composite  plans  are  constantly  employed.  The 
composite  form,  made  up  of  curves  and  marked  "French,"  is  the 
plan  of  the  Louis  XV.  arm-chair,  given  as  an  example  of  rendering 
(Plate  XXV.),  and  the  plan  on  the  right  marked  "Windsor"  is  that 
of  a  Windsor  chair,  similar  to  the  "inclined  form"  (Plate  VII.). 

The  outline  of  nearly  all  chair  backs  is  either  rectangular  or 
trapezoidal  (Plate  IX.).  If  of  the  first,  the  back  posts  are  perpen- 
dicular to  the  floor  line,  and  the  legs  are  the  same  distance  apart  at 
the  floor  as  at  the  seat  level. 

If  of  the  second  form,  the  back  posts  are  inclined  to  the  floor  line 
so  that  the  legs  are  nearer  together  at  the  floor  than  at  the  seat  level, 
and  the  back  of  the  chair  is  proportionately  wider  at  the  top  than  it  is 
at  the  seat.  Though  a  chair  may  have  a  more  complex  and  elaborate 
back  than  any  of  those  taken  as  examples  for  illustration,  an  analysis 
of  the  outline  will  result  in  finding  that  it  is  based  on  one  of  these 
figures.  The  other  four  shapes  illustrated  are  not  as  frequently  used 
as  the  first  two.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  polygonal  and  semi- 
circular patterns. 

Both  of  these  are  taken  from  French  examples.  The  elliptical 
back  is  also  a  favorite  form  for  French  chairs.  The  shield-back  is 
characteristic  of  chairs  made  by  Hepplewhite  about  1793,  and  called 
by  many  "Colonial."  It  is  well  to  observe,  while  studying  these 
outlines,  a  constructive  principle  common  to  all  of  them.  Whatever 
the  outline  of  the  back  it  is  made  up  of  two  vertical  posts  extending 
from  the  floor  to  a  horizontal  rail  connecting  them  at  the  top ;  at  the 


AM  CHAIRS 


SEAT  PLMS 

P°3ITION  of    LEGS. 


JQIWRL 


PLATE  IX 


OUTLINE  OF  CHAIR  BACKS 


RttTANQl/LAR  \\ 


TRAPEZOIDAL  (2. 


ELLIPTICAL 


stiir- CIRCULAR  (5 


COMPOSITION  OF  BACH 


PtATE.X, 


wNaw          (i) 

a 


^YY^ 


VERTICAL 


© 


*  f°uR  BACK" 

HORUDNTAL 


© 


3, 


OUTLINE  °F  T°P  RAILS 


TRAPEZOIDAL 


CIRCULAR. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    BACK.  45 

seat  level  is  a  horizontal  rail  (seat  frame)  ;  and  in  some  instances 
there  is  another  horizontal  rail  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  above 
the  seat. 

The  student  is  to  notice  especially  that  the  uprights  (the  back 
legs)  are  of  one  piece  from  the  floor  to  the  top  rail  of  the  back. 
This  is  often  forgotten  by  beginners  in  chair  designing,  and  weak, 
almost  impossible  shapes  are  given  to  the  back  as  a  result.  The 
elliptical  and  shield-backs,  though  at  first  glance  violating  this  rule, 
are  really  composed  of  the  parts  as  mentioned  above.  A  larger 
drawing  of  the  shield-back  is  given  on  Plate  XVII.,  showing  by  the 
dotted  lines  the  prolongation  of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg;  and  the 
joints  where  the  top  and  bottom  rails  of  the  shield  meet  the  uprights 
are  also  indicated.  Another  chair  back  is  also  shown  on  the  plate 
illustrating  the  same  principle.  There  is  but  one  exception  to  the 
above  method  of  construction,  and  that  is,  when  a  solid  wood  seat  is 
used ;  similar  to  the  saddle  seated  Windsor ;  the  German  Stuhle,  with 
turned  legs ;  and  the  Italian  Scabelum,  with  its  solid  board  supports. 
In  this  case  the  legs  and  the  backs  are  separate.  Each  leg  is  inserted 
in  holes  for  the  purpose  in  the  board  seat. 

Having  determined  on  the  outline  of  a  chair  back  it  is  necessary 
to  study  its  composition,  that  is,  to  decide  how  the  space  within  the 
outline  is  to  be  treated.  This  question  is  sometimes  decided  before 
the  design  is  begun,  as,  for  instance,  wrhen  it  is  panelled,  or  uphol- 
stered. If,  however,  it  is  to  be  of  some  other  pattern,  study  is  neces- 
sary. Aside  from  the  methods  just  mentioned,  the  back  may  be 
filled  with  slats  arranged  in  one  of  the  four  ways  shown  on  Plate  X. 

A  single  broad  slat  ("splat")  may  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
back  between  the  top  and  the  seat  rail,  or  it  may  stop  on  a  horizontal 
rail  just  above  the  seat.  Such  a  slat  can  be  treated  as  desired  either 
with  figured  veneers,  inlay,  painting,  carving,  perforations,  etc.  A 
back  composed  of  a  number  of  vertical  turned  or  half  turned  slats 
filling  the  space  has  been  called  a  "banister  back."  But  the  slats  are 
not  always  turned,  they  are  sometimes  flat,  moulded,  perforated,  in- 
laid or  carved.  They  are  sometimes  placed  horizontally  and  bowed, 
the  concave  side  toward  the  seat.  The  curvature  increases  as  the 
slats  approach  the  top ;  so,  though  the  lower  slat  may  be  nearly 
straight,  the  top  one  is  hollowed  considerably  to  receive  the  shoul- 
ders of  a  person  sitting  in  the  chair.  This  gradual  change  in  the 
curvature  of  the  slats  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  sloping  of  the 
back  posts. 


46  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    SOFAS. 

Chairs  made  with  turned  posts  and  having  horizontal  slats  in  the 
back  were  named  by  the  number  of  slats.  As,  three  backed,  or  four 
backed  chairs;  that  is,  three  or  four  horizontal  slats.  Five  backed 
chairs  were  quite  uncommon. 

It  is  perhaps  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  both  horizontal  and 
vertical  slats  may  be  used  in  the  same  back.  There  is  an  endless 
variety  of  ways  in  which  these  slats  and  balusters  may  be  grouped, 
spaced,  and  proportioned  to  fill  the  space  well.  Whether  the  slats 
or  the  spaces  shall  be  the  broadest  ?  What  is  the  best  outline  for  the 
balusters  ?  Are  the  kind  of  questions  the  designer  is  to  ask  himself, 
striving  always  to  obtain  the  beautiful  rather  than  the  eccentric  and 
curious  forms. 

The  outline  of  the  top  rail  of  the  "rectangular"  and  "trapezoidal" 
backs  has  its  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  chair,  and  it  may  be 
more  or  less  ornamented.  Four  forms  are  shown  on  Plate  X.  which 
explain  themselves. 

In  Plate  VIII.  are  shown  five  plans  of  arm  chairs.  One  of  these 
has  the  arm  straight,  following  the  plan  of  the  seat.  Two  of  the 
others  indicate  how  the  space  between  the  arms  is  made  wider  than 
the  seat  at  the  back  by  curving  the  arm ;  the  front  post  remaining  in 
the  same  position  as  in  the  first  plan.  The  plans  drawn  beneath  the 
chair  with  the  "receding  arm  post"  show  how  the  arm  may  be  a 
compound  curve  or  a  continuation  of  the  curve  of  the  back.  In  the 
former  not  only  does  the  curve  give  a  maximum  width  between  the 
arms,  but  it  also  permits  of  the  front  scroll  of  the  arm  turning  out, 
thus  preventing  the  chair  from  seeming  narrow. 

In  some  chairs  the  plan  of  the  arm  follows  the  curve  of  the  back 
so  there  is  no  angle  where  the  two  join.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
plan  of  a  "Windsor"  chair,  where  the  piece  from  which  the  arm  is 
cut  is  continuous  from  one  side  of  the  chair  to  the  other,  the  slats  of 
the  back  passing  directly  through  it. 

Chair  arms  may  be  horizontal  or  they  may  slope  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  with  the  highest  point  where  they  join  the  back. 
Stretchers  are  used  to  strengthen  the  chair.  The  legs  when  braced 
by  them  are  more  firm  and  less  likely  to  loosen  at  the  seat  frame 
joint.  Plate  VIII.  gives  the  plans  of  three  arrangements  of  stretchers. 
When  placed  high  enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  feet  of  a  person 
using  the  chair  the  stretcher  may  form  a  trapezoid  parallel  to  the 
seat  frame ;  or  if  the  chair  seat  is  high  and  a  foot  rest  is  desired  the 
stretcher  may  be  arranged  this  way  and  set  low  for  the  purpose.  In 


DIMENSIONS    OF    SEAT.  47 

olden  times  European  chairs  were  always  made  high  and  with  a  foot 
rest,  that  a  person  might  keep  his  feet  off  of  the  cold  floors.  Now 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  feet  away  from  the  floor,  it  is  not 
customary  to  allow  them  to  touch  the  stretchers  of  chairs.  These 
are,  therefore,  arranged  diagonally  between  the  legs  of  the  chair; 
or,  the  front  and  back  legs  are  joined  together  by  rails,  while  a  third 
unites  the  two  side  rails.  This  third  rail  may  be  set  in  any  position, 
but  frequently  it  is  a  little  nearer  the  front  than  the  back. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  the  furniture  draughtsman  has  is 
to  design  and  lay  out  for  the  shop  the  drawing  of  a  chair  that  will  be 
satisfactory.  No  drawing  is  more  deceptive  than  the  full  size  for  a 
chair,  and  it  is  by  experience  only  that  a  draughtsman  can  judge 
what  will  result  from  the  working  drawing.  Most  draughtsmen  of 
considerable  experience,  when  working  out  a  detail,  endeavor  to 
have  before  them  a  chair  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  they  are 
drawing. 

A  good  chair  should  first  of  all  be  comfortable  to  sit  in.  If  in- 
tended for  general  service  it  ought  not  to  be  too  heavy  to  move  about 
easily,  and  it  should  be  well  proportioned. 

In  planning  the  seat  determine  its  height  above  the  floor,  its  width 
at  the  front,  its  width  at  the  back,  and  the  depth  from  front  to  back. 
These  vary  as  desired,  and  what  will  make  a  satisfactory  chair  for 
one  person,  may  be  quite  unsuited  to  another ;  consequently  there  are 
all  sorts  and  sizes  of  chairs.  It  is,  however,  desirable  to  have  a  starting 
point  from  which  to  reckon,  and  experience  has  fixed  a  chair  seat 
eighteen  inches  above  the  floor  as  proper,  no  conditions  being  given. 
If  it  is  less  than  this  it  is  considered  low,  and  if  more  it  is  high.  The 
purpose  for  which  a  chair  is  to  be  used  also  serves  as  a  guide  for  di- 
mensions. If  intended  for  use  at  a  writing  table  eighteen  inches  will 
be  satisfactory ;  if  for  a  dining  chair  eighteen  and  a  half,  or  nineteen 
inches  is  not  too  high.  Occasionally  as  high  as  twenty  inches  may 
be  used.  When  the  chair  is  not  to  be  used  at  a  table,  seventeen  and  a 
half,  or  seventeen  inches  high  is  satisfactory  for  most  purposes. 

In  making  the  drawing  from  which  a  chair  is  to  be  constructed 
care  must  be  taken  to  determine  whether  it  is  to  have  castors  or  not. 
If  it  is  to  have  them  the  leg  must  be  shortened  accordingly,  for  the 
average  castor  is  one  and  five  eighths  inches  high  from  the  floor  to 
the  top  of  the  plate  screwed  to  the  under  side  of  the  chair  leg. 

The  depth  of  the  seat,  that  is,  the  distance  from  the  front  to  the 
back,  is  varied  with  the  height.  It  is  not  entirely  a  matter  of  appear- 


48  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    SOFAS. 

ance,  though  within  limits  it  may  be  made  to  please  the  eye.  Gener- 
ally, the  lower  the  seat,  the  deeper  it  should  be.  If  the  chair  seat  is 
high,  and  too  deep,  the  feet  of  the  occupant  will  not  rest  on  the  floor, 
if  he  sits  back  in  the  chair.  Such  a  chair  is  uncomfortable,  and  any 
one  using  it  either  sits  on  the  front  edge,  perhaps  tilting  the  chair 
forward  on  the  front  legs,  or  uses  a  foot  stool.  Either  there  is  no 
support  for  the  back  or  none  for  the  feet  when  such  a  chair  is  used. 

A  chair  that  is  too  low,  and  shallow  in  the  seat,  obliges  the  occu- 
pant to  stretch  his  legs  out  in  front  or  he  becomes  cramped  against 
the  back  of  the  chair  so  that  almost  unconsciously  he  tips  it  back- 
wards. Many  have  tried  to  devise  a  rule  by  which  the  correct  pro- 
portion between  height  and  depth  of  seat  can  be  determined,  but 
thus  far  none  seems  to  suit  all  conditions.  Approximately,  the  sum 
of  the  depth  of  the  seat  plus  its  height  is  equal  to  thirty-five  inches. 

Chairs  for  use  at  a  table  may  be  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
deep,  comfortable,  upholstered  chairs,  twenty  inches  deep;  large, 
low,  upholstered  chairs  may  be  twenty-four  inches  deep  inside  meas- 
urement. The  width  of  the  seat,  from  side  to  side,  may  be  any  size 
called  for  by  the  character  of  the  design,  except  in  the  case  of  an  arm 
chair,  when  it  must  not  be  too  narrow. 

Arm  chairs  are  necessarily  wider  than  others,  in  order  that  there 
may  be  room  between  the  arms  for  a  person  to  sit  easily  without 
feeling  crowded.  The  space  between  the  arms  should  not  be  less 
than  twenty  inches  at  the  front  edge  of  the  seat,  nor  less  than  eigh- 
teen at  the  back.  The  arm  ought  also  to  be  of  such  a  height,  slope, 
and  length  that  it  will  form  a  convenient  rest  for  the  hand  and  fore- 
arm, as  well  as  a  side  support  for  the  body.  Here  again  arises  the 
conditions  of  the  use  of  the  chair;  for,  if  it  is  to  be  used  at  a  table 
the  arm  ought  not  to  project  forward  in  a  way  to  prevent  placing  the 
chair  as  close  to  the  table  as  desirable  for  comfort.  For  such  chairs 
the  arm  post,  that  is  the  upright  from  the  seat  supporting  the  arm, 
if  a  continuation  of  the  front  leg,  is  curved  backward  sufficiently  to 
keep  the  scroll  of  the  arm  back  of,  or  on  a  line  with,  the  front  edge 
of  the  chair  seat. 

The  arm  post  may,  however,  not  be  a  part  of  the  front  post,  but 
entirely  independent.  Then,  it  also  recedes  that  the  scroll  of  the  arm 
may  be  kept  well  away  from  the  front  of  the  chair.  Plate  VIII.  This 
arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  leaving  the  front  of  the  seat  free 
from  obstructions  that  too  closely  confine  the  sitter. 

Arm  posts  on  the  front  edge  of  the  seat  interfere  with  ladies' 


INCLINATION    OF    BACK.  49 

dresses,  and  in  many  of  the  French  chairs  the  arm  posts  not  only  re- 
cede, but  curve  outward  at  the  same  time,  thus  giving  considerable 
more  freedom  for  the  person  and  the  clothing. 

It  is  customary  to  make  the  width  of  the  seat  at  the  back  a  trifle 
less  than  at  the  front,  in  order  to  avoid  the  optical  illusion  of  its  ap- 
pearing wider  at  the  back  than  at  the  front,  as  is  sometimes  the  case 
when  the  sides  are  parallel.  This  difference  in  width  is  about  two 
or  three  inches. 

Hepplewhite  gives  as  the  general  dimensions  of  a  chair :  width  in 
front  20  inches,  depth  of  seat  17  inches,  height  of  seat  frame  17 
inches  (his  chair  seats  are  about  1-2  or  I  inch  above  the  frame)  ; 
total  height  3  feet  I  inch.  The  height  of  a  chair  back  is  a  matter  of 
design,  and  it  may  be  proportioned  accordingly.  It  may,  or  may  not, 
be  inclined  to  the  seat ;  its  side  posts  may  be  slightly  inclined,  while 
the  middle  slopes  considerably,  thus  providing  a  hollow  in  which  the 
shoulders  of  the  sitter  rest  comfortably.  Modern  chairs  usually  have 
the  back  inclined,  though  chairs  for  use  in  the  entrance  hall  and 
dining-room  are,  perhaps,  made  with  the  back  vertical. 

The  amount  of  slope  given  the  back  depends  on  the  use  to  which 
the  chair  is  put.  An  easy  chair  reclines  the  most,  and  just  as  a  low 
chair  is  deeper  in  the  seat  than  a  high  chair,  so,  too,  may  the  back 
slope  more  on  a  low  seat  chair  than  on  a  high  one.  A  chair  with 
arms  may  also  have  a  back  more  inclined  than  one  without. 

The  appearance  of  stability  is  largely  influenced  by  the  inclination 
of  the  back.  So  much  so,  that  it  is  found  desirable  in  most  chairs  to 
slope  the  back  legs  outwards  a  little  to  counteract  the  apparent  ten- 
dency of  the  chair  to  upset.  An  arbitrary  rule  is :  the  slope  of  the 
back  for  a  chair  without  arms  should  not  be  more  than  one-fourth 
the  depth  of  the  seat  and  chairs  with  arms  not  more  than  one  half. 

The  legs  and  rails  of  chairs  should  appear  firm  enough  to  sup- 
port, not  alone  the  chair,  but  the  person  that  sits  in  it.  For  chairs 
with  straight  legs,  whether  turned  or  square  in  section,  the  matter  of 
strength  is  one  of  size  only.  The  bandy-leg,  however,  requires  more 
care  that  the  curve  may  not  be  too  great.  Rococo  work  defies  the 
laws  of  wood  structure,  yet  it  may  be  properly  made  so  as,  in  a  meas- 
ure, to  reconcile  the  critic  to  its  eccentricity.  In  describing  the 
rococo  table  leg  (page  14)  it  was  told  how  to  overcome  the  ap- 
parent, as  well  as  actual,  weakness  of  this  form  of  support,  and  what 
was  said  then  will  apply  as  well  to  chair  legs. 

Many  chairs  are  more  or  less  upholstered.     It  may  be  the  seat 


50  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    S.OFAS. 

only  that  is  thus  treated,  or  the  entire  woodwork,  except  perhaps  the 
legs,  may  be  hidden  by  a  covering  of  upholsterer's  work. 

The  simplest  methods  of  upholstering  seats  are  the  two  padded 
varieties  in  which  no  springs  are  used.  No.  i,  Plate  XL,  shows  a 
cheap  way  when  a  hard  seat  is  not  objectionable,  and  it  is  desir- 
able that  there  should  be  a  little  elasticity.  In  the  illustration  the  pad- 
ding is  fastened  directly  to  the  frame  of  the  seat  so  when  complete  it 
appears  the  same  as  an  upholstered,  spring  seat.  In  some  instances 
the  padding  is  fastened  to  a  separate,  loose  frame  resting  in  a  re- 
bate of  the  seat  frame,  and  if  the  chair  is  turned  bottom  up  the  seat 
will  fall  out.  Such  is  the  way  Chippendale  and  Hepplewhite  chairs 
are  often  made. 

The  foundation  for  the  padded  seat  is  webbing  stretched  as  tightly 
as  possible  across  the  frame,  front  to  back,  and  side  to  side.  The 
widths  interlace,  over  and  under,  each  other  so  as  to  make  a  firm 
plaited  mat  covering  the  frame.  On  top  of  this  a  piece  of  burlap  is 
stretched  and  tacked  all  around  the  edge  of  the  frame.  On  the  burlap 
is  spread  sufficient  curled  hair  to  make  the  requisite  padding  of  the 
seat,  and  this  is  held  in  place  by  a  piece  of  muslin,  or  cotton  flannel, 
drawn  tightly  over  it  and  tacked  to  the  side  of  the  frame.  The  web- 
bing and  burlaps  are  tacked  to  the  upper  edge.  The  seat  is  now 
ready  for  any  cover  that  may  be  chosen,  and  when  at  hand  the  up- 
holsterer spreads  it  over  the  muslin  cover  and  tacks  it  to  the  frame. 
The  tack  heads  are  afterwards  covered  by  a  gimp,  which  is  usually 
glued  on,  even  though  nails  are  afterwards  driven  in  to  apparently 
secure  it.  The  seat  just  described  is  the  simplest,  as  well  as  the 
cheapest  form  of  upholstery  permissible  in  good  work.  It  has  the 
disadvantage  of  being  hard,  and  in  a  short  time  the  webbing  becomes 
stretched  so  the  seat  sags  in  the  middle. 

A  better  seat,  requiring  a  little  more  work,  is  shown  in  No.  2, 
Plate  XL  It  differs  from  No.  i  only  in  the  amount  of  hair  and  the 
way  it  is  used.  As  there  is  more  hair  than  in  the  first  instance,  the 
seat  frame  is  made  lower  that  the  extra  quantity  of  hair  may  not 
raise  the  seat  too  high. 

The  hair  is  placed  on  the  webbing  foundation  and  covered  with 
burlaps.  The  edges  are  then  stitched  by  passing  a  needle  in  at  the 
side,  out  at  the  top,  and  then  back  again  to  the  side,  and  so  forth, 
until  the  entire  edge  of  the  seat  has  been  sewed  in  this  way.  When 
the  edge  becomes  quite  hard  and  firm  with  the  amount  of  hair  that 
has  been  stitched  in  it  the  middle  of  the  seat  is  also  sewed  through 


Pun  XI. 

CONSTRUCTION    AND  UPHOLSTEEY  OF  CHAIRS 


UPHOLSTERY.  53 

and  through  until  it  is  a  trifle  lower  than  the  edges.  This  makes  a 
firm,  somewhat  hard,  hair  cushion  with  its  edge  a  little  higher  than 
the  rest.  The  hollow  is  then  well  filled  with  hair,  and  over  this  the 
muslin,  and  finally  the  cover  is  drawn.  Such  a  seat  has  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  one  upholstered  with  springs,  and  is  comfortable  enough 
where  something  firm  is  wanted. 

No.  3  illustrates  the  spring  seat.  It  differs  from  No.  2  in  this  re- 
spect :  the  webbing  is  fastened  to  the  underside  of  the  seat  frame,  in- 
stead of  the  top,  and,  on  it  are  placed  the  springs.  Over  them  is 
stitched  a  burlap  on  which  the  hair  or  stuffing  is  placed.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  work  is  the  same  as  for  padded  seat  No.  2.  The  edge 
is  stitched,  hair  is  added,  the  muslin  is  drawn  over,  and  finally  the 
cover. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  seat  so  that  none  of  the  woodwork 
shall  show,  no  difference  occurs  until  the  cover  is  put  on,  when  in- 
stead of  fastening  it,  as  illustrated,  just  above  the  lower  edge  of  the 
frame,  it  is  brought  down  over  the  frame  and  tacked  to  the  under 
side.  In  such  work  cotton  wadding  is  placed  between  the  frame  and 
the  cover  that  the  wood  may  not  be  felt,  if  the  hand  is  in  contact  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  seat.  > 

Chair  seats  that  are  upholstered  have  a  block  of  wood  notched 
around  the  corner  post  on  the  inner  side,  and  fastened  to  the  top 
of  the  seat  frame,  where  it  joins  the  back.  This  is  the  "upholstery 
block,"  and  is  needed  by  the  upholsterer  to  tack  the  cover  on  where 
it  fits  around  the  back  post.  The  upper  surface  of  this  block  is  about 
one-half  inch  below  the  level  of  the  finished  seat. 

Chair  backs  may  be  upholstered  in  a  manner  similar  to  seats,  and 
the  methods  are  the  same.  The  term  "over-stuffed  pieces"  is  ap- 
plied to  furniture  that  is  upholstered  so  that  none  of  the  framework, 
except  the  legs,  is  visible.  No.  4,  Plate  XL,  illustrates  an  arm  chair 
of  this  description,  showing  the  framework  and  the  method  of  cover- 
ing it.  The  frame  is  of  hardwood,  and  is  constructed  the  same  as 
any  other  chair.  The  seat  frame  is  set  low  in  order  that  there  may 
be  plenty  of  room  for  large  springs,  making  the  seat  soft  and  easy. 

Beneath  the  upper  rail  of  the  arm,  and  also  of  the  back  is  a  second 
rail  left  loose  that  it  may  be  fastened  where  desired  by  the  uphol- 
sterer. These  rails  are  used  by  him  for  fastening  the  lower  edges 
of  the  arm  and  back  covers,  which  are  put  on  after  the  seat  is 
upholstered. 

The  seat  frame  of  overstuffed  pieces  should  be  so  constructed  that 


54  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    SOFAS. 

the  webbing  may  be  tacked  to  it  at  a  point  not  more  than  eleven 
inches  below  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  springs,  if  springs  of  usual 
dimensions  are  used.  It  may  be  less,  if  desired,  for  then  smaller 
springs  can  be  used,  or  large  springs  may  be  tied  down.  The  top  of 
the  seat  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches  above  the  top  of  the  springs. 
Sometimes  the  seat  frame  is  very  deep,  and  were  the  webbing  tacked 
to  its  lower  edge  the  springs  would  be  much  below  the  level  re- 
quired. In  such  instances  either  a  strip  of  wood  is  fastened  all 
around  the  inside  of  the  frame  to  which  the  webbing  may  be  tacked 
or  else  an  extra  loose  frame  is  covered  by  webbing  and  set  inside  the 
seat  frame  at  the  proper  level. 

The  upper  edge  of  the  seat  frame  is  usually  about  halfway  between 
the  level  of  the  webbing  and  top  of  the  springs.  The  method  of  up- 
holstering the  seat  and  back  when  springs  are  used,  is  the  same  as 
described  above  for  No.  3.  In  the  work  on  the  back,  however,  there 
will  be  noticed  on  the  illustration  a  portion  marked  "roll."  This  is 
made  of  hair  stitched  in  burlap  to  make  a  firm  edge,  all  around  the 
back  frame,  possessing  elasticity  enough  not  to  feel  hard  when 
leaned  against.  Over  this  the  covers  are  drawn. 

In  good  work  the  upholsterer  carefully  covers  all  edges  of  the 
wood  with  hair  stitched  in  burlap  and  all  flat  surfaces  with  cotton 
batting,  so  that  at  no  point  is  the  wood  beneath  easily  detected  by 
the  touch. 

Overstuffed  pieces  do  not  admit  of  a  great  variety  of  good  forms. 
There  are  no  ends  of  patterns,  or  designs,  in  which  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  produce  something  new  and  good;  but  most  of  them 
are  unsatisfactory. 

The  beauty  of  this  class  of  work  is  dependent  on  the  absence  of 
fussy,  unnecessary  trimmings,  and  on  the  outline.  This  outline 
ought  to  be  one  that  seems  the  natural  result  of  using  upholsterers' 
materials,  and  the  simplest  best  fills  this  requirement.  Upholstery 
may  be  either  plain  or  tufted,  and  the  choice  is  at  times  a  matter  of 
taste,  but  frequently  tufting  is  a  constructive  necessity.  When  the 
seat  level  is  high  above  the  frame  tufting  of  the  front  edge  prevents, 
to  a  degree,  the  sagging  of  the  covering  when  the  chair  is  occupied 
and  the  springs  compressed.  A  border  formed  by  a  line  of  stitching 
along  the  front  about  half  the  height  of  the  seat  sometimes  serves 
the  same  purpose.  These  methods  also  prevent  the  cover  from  ap- 
pearing too  large  after  the  piece  has  been  used  awhile  and  the  stuf- 
fing is  matted  down.  It  is  also  advisable  to  tuft  the  seat  and  back  of 


THE    COVER.  55 

very  large  pieces  for  the  same  reason ;  or,  as  a  decorative  feature  if 
the  covering  material  is  plain,  unfigured  goods.  The  tufting  should 
always  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  article.  Where  the  surface 
to  be  upholstered  is  concave  tufting  is  necessary,  otherwise  the  ma- 
terial can  not  readily  be  made  to  follow  the  curve.  The  ordinary 
form  of  tufting  is  to  sew  the  goods  in  at  the  four  corners  of  a  dia- 
mond, but  occasionally  for  concave  surfaces  it  becomes  more  like  a 
series  of  rolls  side  by  side,  and  the  full  length  of  the  hollow. 

The  material  used  as  a  cover  for  over  stuffed  pieces  largely  affects 
their  appearance;  goods  that  would  be  well  suited  to  one  chair  may 
not  look  right  on  another.  The  color  is  governed  by  the  decora- 
tions of  the  room  in  which  the  furniture  is  placed.  It  need  not,  per- 
haps should  not,  be  the  same  color  as  the  walls  since  contrast  is  de- 
sirable, but  it  must  be  in  harmony  with  the  surroundings.  The  pat- 
tern of  the  goods  may  be  of  a  historic  style  similar  to  the  design  of 
the  room,  though  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  confine  oneself  too 
closely,  for  in  many  instances  the  figure  of  the  goods  is  entirely  lost 
in  the  tufting,  and  a  color  effect  is  all  that  impresses  itself  on  the 
mind.  This  is  largely  true  also  of  pieces  without  tufting. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  patterns  too  pronounced  in  form  or  out  of  scale 
with  the  article  covered.  Then,  too,  it  is  not  desirable  to  use  de- 
signs composed  of  objects  that  a  person  would  not  care  to  sit  on,  as 
shells,  sharp  tesellated  forms,  musical  instruments,  buildings,  land- 
scapes, etc.  The  suitable  materials  are  those  woven  with  an  "all 
over"  ornament  of  a  size  adapted  to  the  intended  use,  and  treated  in 
a  flat  way  without  imitating  modelling  in  relief. 

Over  stuffed  articles  have  no  woodwork,  except  the  legs,  show- 
ing and  they  sometimes  seem  too  light  for  the  mass  above,  though 
really  they  may  be  more  than  strong  enough.  If  fringe  is  hung 
from  the  lower  edge  of  the  upholstery  to  the  floor  the  feet  are  hidden 
and  the  general  mass  is  apparently  resting  on  the  floor,  the  fringe 
serving  to  carry  the  color  and  lines  to  that  level.  The  length  of  the 
fringe  may  be  about  one-half  the  height  of  the  seat.  The  best  taste 
admits  of  only  simple  fringes  free  from  small  drapings,  "skirts,"  or 
elaborate  nettings  that  soon  become  dirty  and  shabby.  When  the 
supports  of  the  furniture  are  sufficiently  heavy  to  suggest  no  thought 
of  weakness,  and  there  is  a  frame  to  show  wood  below  the  uphol- 
stery no  fringe  is  required. 

The  rush  seat  chair  is  not  in  common  use,  as  it  was  a  number  of 
years  ago,  yet  occasionally  it  is  wanted.  The  frame  for  such  a  seat 


56  CHAIRS,    SEATS,    SOFAS. 

is  shallow,  not  more  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  and  has  all  its  edges 
rounded.  Sometimes  the  frame  is  nothing  more  than  turned  sticks 
over  which  the  rushes  are  twisted  and  woven  into  a  seat  entirely 
covering  them. 

The  cane  seat  requires  a  flat  frame  usually  above  the  seat  frame, 
though  it  may  replace  it.  On  the  inner  edge  of  this  frame  holes  are 
bored  through  which  the  cane  is  drawn  and  stretched  across  the 
opening  until  a  seat  is  formed. 

The  sofa  is  practically  an  extremely  wide  chair,  and  the  data  given 
for  chairs  may  be  applied  to  it. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  dimensions  of  various  chairs  taken 
from  satisfactory  examples: 


CHAIR   DIMENSIONS. 


Variety.  Height. 

Bedroom  chair 18 

Baby's  high  chair1 20 

Cheek  chair2 17 

"Chip"  chair 17 

"      18 

Dining  chair 20 

20 

"       19 

"       18 

Basy  chair 17 

Easy  chair2 17 

"Hepplewhite"  chair 18 

Parlor  chair» 16% 

Parlor  chair2 14 

Parlor  chair2 18 

Parlor  chair4 18 

Piano  bench 20 

Reception  chair5 17 

Rocking  chair 16 

"Roundabout"  chair 18 

"Rubens"  chair 20% 

"Slipper"  chair 12 

1Foot  rest  12  ins.  above  floor; 
and  back;     5 upholstered  seat. 
'Depth  inside. 


Seat. 

—Width- 
Front.       Back. 


16 

14 

29 

22 

22 

24 

19 

19 

20 

33 

27 

21% 

24 

21 

26% 

20 

40 

21 

23% 

18 

17% 

18 


13 

12 

25 

17% 

17 

22 

17 

17 

15 

28 

25 

17 

19% 

21 

22% 

13 

19 

20% 

18 

17% 
15 


Depth. 
Out- 
side. 

17 
13H 
27% 
17 
I7?i 
22 
19 
18 
15 
*24 

27% 
17 

18% 
*18 
26% 
19 
15 
21 

19% 
18 
15 
17 


—Back- 

Height. 

Slope. 

34 

*H 

37 

3 

44 

4% 

39 

38 

45 

2% 

43 

2 

38% 

1% 

36 

2 

43 

5 

41 

6% 

34% 

2 

36 

4 

29 

37 

4* 

36 

3 

30 

2* 

41 

2 

29% 

0 

40 

0 

28 

3 

Arms. 

Height. 

from 

floor. 

27 


26'/2 


21 
26 
27 

25% 

25 
23 


24 

284 


2 overstuffed;     3 French  cane  stat  and  back;    4wood  arm 


SOFA   DIMENSIONS. 


Variety.  Height. 

Small 18 

Extra  large 16 

Ordinary  sofa 15 

Ix>unge 17 


Seat. 

—Width- 
Front.       Back. 


Depth. 
Out- 
side. 

21 

36 

24 

28 

29 


—Back- 
Height.     Slope. 
3 


32H 
29 
34 
35 


2% 

12 


Arms. 

Height. 

from 

floor. 

24 

25 

24 

29 

34 


Note.— All  dimensions  are  given  in  inches.    Heights  are  above  the  floor.    Slope  of  back 
is  mcasurtd,  at  seat  level,  to  a  perpendicular  through  highest  point  of  the  h.  ck. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Casework,  Panelling,  Bedsteads. 

THE  beauty  of  casework  is  dependent  on:  Firstly,  its  propor- 
tion as  a  whole.  That  is  whether  the  height,  the  width,  and 
the  depth  are  of  dimensions  that  appear  well  together.  In  most  prob- 
lems at  least  one  of  these  dimensions  is  fixed  by  some  requirement 
of  utility.  The  designer  is  then  expected  to  decide  the  other  two. 

Secondly,  the  disposition  of  the  parts  (i.  e.  panels,  framing,  archi- 
tectural members,  such  as  columns,  mouldings,  etc.),  of  which  the 
case  is  composed  has  its  influence  on  the  design.  Whether  the  panels 
are  large,  or  small ;  whether  they  are  arranged  in  pairs,  or  grouped 
in  another  way ;  whether  the  mouldings  are  heavy  or  light,  etc.,  are 
the  questions  studied. 

Thirdly,  the  ornamentation.  This  is  the  last  point  to  be  consid- 
ered, because  if  the  general  form  is  bad  no  amount  of  decoration, 
whatever  its  quality,  will  make  a  good  piece  of  furniture.  As  the 
subject  of  the  ornamentation  of  furniture  is  treated  as  a  separate 
chapter  (VI.)  it  need  not  be  discussed  further  here. 

In  front  elevation  casework  usually  approaches  more  or  less  the 
form  of  a  rectangle  and  the  first  condition  in  its  design  is  to  find  a 
method  for  determining  the  ratio  of  the  sides  of  a  rectangle  most 
agreeable  to  the  eye.  This  has  already  been  studied  by  several  writers 
with  at  least  two  solutions. 

One  assumes  a  square  as  the  starting  point  and  implies  that  any 
rectangle  having  two  sides  equal  to  the  sides  of  the  square  will  be 
well  proportioned  if  the  other  two  sides  are  not  more  than  twice  its 
length.  In  other  words,  a  well-formed  rectangle  is  not  more  than 
two  squares  long.  Plate  XII. 

Another  ratio  given  is  that  of  two  to  three.  Assuming  that  if  the 
width  of  the  rectangle  is  two,  the  length  should  be  three.  This  ratio, 
of  course,  is  included  within  the  limits  of  the  first  method. 

For  the  purposes  of  designing  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  rectan- 


58  CASEWORK. 

gle,  whether  vertical  or  horizontal,  represents  the  principal  mass  of 
the  case;  what  is  technically  known  as  the  body.  To  this  may  be 
added  at  the  top  the  crowning  members,  and  at  the  bottom  the  base 
on  which  the  whole  is  supported.  To  the  sides  may  be  added  the 
projections  of  mouldings,  columns,  brackets,  or  other  decorative 
features. 

The  relation  of  the  various  parts  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole 
should  be  kept  in  mind.  Often  casework  consists  of  an  upper  and 
lower  section.  The  lower  part  must  not  only  be  sufficiently  strong  to 
support  what  is  above  it,  but  it  ought  to  appear  so  without  seeming 
heavier  than  is  necessary.  The  base  or  feet  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  mass  above  and  the  crown  members,  well  supported,  are  to 
be  made  large  enough  to  serve  as  a  finish  for  the  case  without 
apparently  crushing  it. 

The  spacing  and  arranging  of  the  principal  lines  dividing  the  case 
into  panels,  drawers,  etc.,  is  to  be  such  as  will  give  pleasing  results, 
and  there  are  an  infinite  number  of  arrangements  possible.  The 
whole  mass  may  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  post  the  same 
size  as  one  on  each  corner  of  the  cabinet,  No.  3,  Plate  XII.  This 
sort  of  a  division  has  the  disadvantage  of  causing  the  case  to  appear 
as  if  it  were  made  of  two  smaller  ones  placed  together,  and  as  if  the 
two  parts  were  balanced  on  the  middle  line.  It  is  not  considered  the 
best  way  of  doing. 

A  similar  composition  is  one  in  which  the  case  is  divided  into  three 
parts  with  the  middle  one  the  smallest.  This  has  the  faults  of  the 
former  method,  though  not  in  such  a  marked  degree.  When  three 
divisions  are  made  the  best  appearance  is  obtained  by  making  the 
middle  one  larger  than  those  each  side  of  it.  No.  6,  Plate  XII. 
Other  arrangements  are  also  shown  on  the  same  plate. 

As  was  mentioned  above,  furniture  should  be  adapted  to  its  use, 
and  if  possible  its  design  should  indicate  the  use.  The  location  of 
an  article  in  a  room  has  its  effect  on  the  appearance.  So  much  so, 
that  if  possible  the  designer  should  study  the  surroundings.  He  is 
then  in  a  position  to  make  a  design  that  will  harmonize  with  the 
decoration  of  the  room,  and  an  article  of  a  size  best  suited  to  the 
space  it  will  occupy.  He  can  also  see  how  much  light  will  fall  on  it 
and  be  governed  somewhat  by  this  in  determining  the  size  of  the 
mouldings,  etc.  If  the  room  is  well  lighted  a  moulded  member  if 
fine  and  delicate  will  show  to  advantage,  but  in  a  dark  corner  larger 
moulding  will  be  more  suitable. 


COMPOSITION 

AND 

PROPORTION 


PLATE 


1 


® 


© 


MOULDINGS.  6l 

As  casework  pieces  are  usually  the  largest  in  the  room  they  are 
quite  prominent,  no  matter  how  simple  they  may  be,  and  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  make  their  presence  obtrusive  by  over  ornamentation. 
The  decoration  used  should  be  appropriate,  sparingly  applied,  and 
of  the  highest  quality  of  execution.  Casework  approaches  nearer  to 
architectural  designing  than  any  other  furniture  draughting.  In 
nearly  every  article  mouldings  are  used  that  are  identical  with  those 
of  architecture.  They  are  combined  in  the  same  way  and  their  use 
is  for  much  the  same  purpose.  There  are  eight  forms  from  which 
nearly  all  others  are  derived  by  combination  or  variation  and  their 
names  are  of  importance  as  serving  a  means  for  description. 

Plate  XIV.  illustrates  these  mouldings  as  follows: 

The  fillet  is  a  narrow,  flat  surface,  usually  above  or  below  another 
moulding,  and  it  may  be  either  a  projecting  or  receding  member. 
When  below  the  surrounding  surface  it  is  a  sunk  fillet. 

The  bead  is  a  small,  half-round  moulding  either  projecting  from 
or  even  with  the  surrounding  surface.  In  the  latter  case  there  is  a 
narrow  grove  at  one  side,  and  it  is  called  a  quirked  bead. 

The  cavetto  is  a  hollow  moulding,  the  outline  of  which  does  not 
exceed  a  quarter  circle ;  and  the  ovolo  is  the  reverse  of  the  cavetto ; 
that  is,  a  projecting  member  of  which  the  outline  is  a  segment  not 
exceeding  a  quarter.  The  cavetta  and  ovolo  are  not  always  circular 
in  outline.  Any  curve  may  be  employed,  but  the  circular  or  elliptical 
forms  are  most  common. 

The  cyma  recta,  or  ogee,  has  a  profile  composed  of  two  arcs,  hol- 
low and  convex,  like  a  wave,  the  hollow  at  the  top.  The  crown 
member  of  cornices  is  often  made  with  this  moulding. 

The  cyma  reversa,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  the  reverse  of  the 
ogee ;  the  convex  curve  is  at  the  top  and  the  concave  below. 

The  scotia  is  a  concave  moulding  with  the  outline  a  segment  of  a 
circle  often  greater  than  a  semi-circle.  It  is  sometimes  called  a 
thumb  moulding,  and  the  hollow  section  is  then  composed  of  two 
tangent  arcs  of  different  radii. 

A  torus  is  a  large  convex  moulding  usually  with  a  semi-circular 
profile.  When  any  of  these  mouldings  are  used  beneath  a  horizontal 
surface  forming  an  angle  with  a  vertical  one  it  is  called  a  bed  mould. 

Later  we  will  see  that  mouldings  used  to  hold  panels  in  place  are 
sometimes  partly  above  the  surrounding  rails.  They  are  then  called 
raised  mouldings  to  distinguish  them  from  flush  mouldings  which 
are  level  with  the  rail.  Mouldings  serve  various  practical  purposes 


CASEWORK. 


but  their  aesthetic  effect  is  to  be  thought  of.  They  produce  much  the 
same  result,  when  used  as  a  frame,  that  a  line  border  does  about  a 
drawing.  The  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  a  moulding  is  to  produce 
a  series  of  lines  that  vary  indefinitely,  according  to  the  proportions 
of  the  moulding  and  its  parts.  A  deep  undercut  moulding  gives  a 
heavy  dark  shadow,  a  black  line ;  and  a  narrow  flat  moulding  a  light 
shadow ;  a  fine  line. 


THICKflttt    KKRlttti, 


EFFECT  OF  nouiDm<& 

The  position  of  the  moulding  in  relation  to  the  eye  may  also  appar- 
ently increase  or  diminish  its  members.  If  it  is  placed  above  or  be- 
low the  eye  so  the  moulding  ascends  or  descends,  respectively,  and 
recedes  from  the  eye  the  member  will  diminish  in  size,  appearing 
thinner  than  it  is.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  moulding  descends  or 
ascends  respectively  the  member  will  appear  thicker  than  it  really  is. 

When  a  moulded  member  is  composed  of  two  or  more  of  the  sim- 
ple forms  described  above,  it  owes  its  charm  somewhat  to  the  intro- 
duction of  a  fillet  which,  separates  each  moulding  from  that  adjoin- 
ing. An  important  combination  of  mouldings  is  their  use  in  the 
crown  members  of  cabinets.  We  have  already  called  attention  to 
having  this  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  body  below ;  in  addition, 
it  should  not  project  too  much.  If  its  overhang  is  not  greater  than 
its  depth  it  will  usually  look  well,  but  in  many  instances  it  will  be 
found  desirable  to  keep  somewhat  within  this  limit. 

Mouldings  may  be  ornamented  by  carving  and  when  so  treated 


CASE   CONSTRUCTION 


PLATE  XDL 


CO.INICL 


PUNTM 


KBATt  TO  RICEIVt 

rwit  or  TOP 


WOTt  TO  RttEIYt  W£ 
B0TT0IT 


OFBASt 


CONSTRUCTION. 


care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  their  general  form.  It  is  usual  on 
architectural  members  to  employ  the  profile  of  the  moulding  as  the 
leading  line  of  the  ornaments  upon  it.  Thus,  the  fillet  may  be  dec- 
orated by  vertical  lines  as  flutes,  fret,  or  dentils;  the  bead,  by 
"pearls,"  bead  and  spindle ;  the  torus  by  the  guilloche ;  the  ovolo,  by 
an  egg  and  dart ;  and  the  cymas,  by  the  heart  ornament,  etc. 

Cases  are  composed  of  a  top,  a  bottom,  and  uprights  between 
which  are  panels  of  wood  or  glass.  Plate  XIII  shows  a  section  of  a 
cabinet  with  the  parts  separated  so  as  to  illustrate  how  it  is  con- 
structed. The  column  forming  the  corner  post  is  doweled  to  the 
base  and  cornice.  The  sides  and  back  are  paneled  and  are  either 
doweled  or  rebated  to  the  other  parts.  The  bottom  and  top  is  com- 

JOINTS 


PLAIN   DOVtTAIL 


5.AP     DOVETAIL 


HlTRtD    DOVETAIL 


f!OfcTI5E.    AMD  TEtlOfl 

x''T"\ 


DOWEL    30WT 


.'3TU0  TENOH 


posed  of  a  frame  surrounding  a  panel.  In  order  to  build  all  parts 
together  use  is  made  of  several  kinds  of  joints.  Though  these  are  not 
always  shown  on  the  drawings  it  is  desirable  that  the  draughtsman 
be  familiar  with  them.  They  may  be  arranged  in  three  groups, 
comprising  those  commonly  used  in  furniture  construction ;  the  butt, 
the  angle,  and  the  framing  joint. 


66  CASEWORK. 

The  butt-joint  is  employed  when  two  pieces  of  wood  are  jointed  to- 
gether in  the  same  plane.  The  simplest  form  is  when  the  edges  of 
the  two  pieces  are  brought  together  and  held  by  glue,  no  other  con- 
necting medium  being  used.  This  is  often  sufficient,  and  when  prop- 
erly made  is  quite  strong.  It  is  almost  invisible  in  the  majority  of 
woods  when  made  so  the  grain  is  parallel  with  the  line  of  contact. 

When  a  stronger  method  is  required,  and  one  side  of  the  pieces 
joined  is  hidden  from  view,  blocks  are  glued  across  the  joint,  on  the 
unexposed  surface,  so  as  to  stiffen  it.  The  grain  of  these  blocks 
must  be  parallel  with  that  of  the  jointed  pieces  that  shrinkage  may 
not  loosen,  or  cause  them  to  crack. 

Another  way  of  uniting  the  edges  of  two  boards  is  by  the  tongue 
and  groove.  A  tongue,  or  projecting  piece,  along  the  middle  of  the 
edge  of  one  piece  is  matched  to  a  groove  in  the  edge  of  the  other. 
Sometimes  in  place  of  this,  a  groove  is  cut  in  the  edge  of  each  of  the 
boards  throughout  their  entire  length.  Into  these  grooves  is  then 
glued  a  hardwood  strip,  called  the  tongue  or  slip-feather,  uniting  the 
two  pieces. 

The  most  popular  joint  with  the  cabinetmaker  is  the  dowel- joint. 
It  is  perhaps  the  best  where  the  wood  is  of  sufficient  thickness  to 
permit  its  use.  A  dowel  is  a  wooden  pin  used  for  fastening  two 
pieces  of  wood  together  by  inserting  part  of  its  length  into  one 
piece,  the  rest  entering  a  corresponding  hole  in  the  other.  Some- 
times a  number  of  dowels  are  fitted  tightly  into  holes  bored  for  them 
in  one  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  and  the  other  has  corresponding 
holes  bored  in  it,  in  which  the  dowels  also  fit  tightly  when  the  two 
pieces  are  glued  together. 

Angle  joints  are  frequently  mitred;  that  is,  the  joined  edges  are 
cut  at  a  bevel  bisecting  the  angle  between  them  when  united.  The 
union  is  made  by  butting  the  pieces  and  gluing  them  together.  As 
this  does  not  make  a  strong  joint  in  itself,  it  is  stiffened  in  various 
ways.  One  method  is  to  drive  small  bits  of  corrugated  metal  in  the 
ends  of  the  pieces  and  across  the  joint,  thus  binding  the  parts 
together.  At  other  times  corner  blocks  are  glued  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  mitred  angle. 

For  rounded  corners,  or  when  a  mitred  angle  is  not  wanted,  the 
two  pieces  may  be  tongued  and  grooved  together.  The  tongue  is 
on  the  inner  edge  of  one  of  the  pieces,  so  that  as  much  wood  as 
possible  is  retained  outside  the  groove  on  the  other.  The  best  and 
strongest  method  of  joining  two  pieces  at  an  angle  is  by  dovetailing. 


JOINTS.  67 

When  the  joint  is  made  so  the  full  thickness  of  each  piece  joined  is 
visible  and  the  shape  of  each  dovetail  can  be  seen,  the  joint  is  a  plain 
dovetail.  The  lapped  dovetail  is  constructed  so  the  joint  is  seen  at  the 
side  only,  and  is  commonly  used  for  fastening  the  sides  and  front  of 
drawers  together.  When  it  is  desirable  to  have  all  indications  of  the 
dovetailing  hidden,  a  combination  of  the  mitre  and  dovetail  is  used, 
in  which  the  dovetails  are  cut  in  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  wood 
and  the  mitre  in  the  remainder.  Such  a  joint  is  a  mitred  dovetail. 

The  usual  framing  joints  used  by  furniture  makers  are  the  dowel- 
joint  and  the  mortise  and  tenon.  (See  also  page  17.) 

The  true  mortise  (cavity)  is  cut  near  the  end  of  one  piece  to 
receive  the  tongue  (tenon)  of  the  other.  The  tenon  is  not  always 
the  full  width  of  the  piece  on  which  it  is  cut,  but  often  is  narrower. 

When  framing  for  a  series  of  panels,  a  groove  is  sunk  the 
whole  length  of  two  of  the  framing  pieces  (those  extending  hori- 
zontally, called  rails),  and  those  at  right  angles  to  them  (vertical 
pieces  between  the  panels,  the  stiles)  have  tenons  cut  on  them  which 
fit  in  the  grooves.  These  grooves  also  receive  the  panels.  This 
method  avoids  cutting  a  mortise  for  each  tenon,  and  the  name  given 
to  the  joint  is  stub-tenon. 

When  two  pieces  are  joined  by  cutting  away  half  the  thickness  of 
each  and  then  lapping  them  together,  they  are  said  to  be  halved. 
Such  a  joint  is  sometimes  combined  with  a  mitre,  so  that  where 
exposed  to  view  it  appears  like  any  mitred  joint.  It  is  then  said  to 
be  halved-mitred. 

Broad  surfaces  of  casework  are  panelled  partially  as  a  means  of 
decoration,  but  principally  for  constructive  reasons.  If  the  surface 
were  made  from  a  solid  board,  it  would  soon  crack  and  warp  as  the 
wood  became  dryer.  It  might  be  built  up  and  veneered  as  has  been 
described  for  table  tops  (page  18),  and  this  is  occasionally  done; 
but  as  paneling  gives  a  change  of  plane  with  a  chance  for  light  and 
shade,  it  is  more  commonly  used. 

The  panels  are,  however,  veneered  and  cross-veneered  on  both 
sides  of  a  core  whenever  perfect  workmanship  is  wanted. 

Panels  are  surrounded  by  a  frame,  which  may  be  grooved  to  re- 
ceive them ;  but  a  better  way  is  to  rebate  the  frame  and  hold  the 
panels  in  by  mouldings.  Three  ways  of  doing  this  are  shown  on 
Plate  XIV.  In  the  joiner's-  method  either  a  groove  is  worked  in  the 
styles  of  the  surrounding  frame  to  hold  the  panel  and  then  the 
moulding  is  placed  in  the  angle  against  the  panel,  or  a  rebate  is  cut 
in  which  both  panel  and  moulding  are  set. 


68  CASEWORK. 

In  either  case,  if  the  moulding  is  nailed  in,  the  nail  will  probably 
be  driven  directly  in  the  panel,  or  else  diagonally  through  both  the 
edge  of  the  panel  and  rail.  In  the  first  instance  any  shrinkage  of  the 
panel  causes  a  crack  to  appear  between  the  frame  and  the  moulding. 

To  avoid  this,  a  rebate  can  be  cut  in  the  moulding,  when  it  is 
large  enough  to  permit,  so  it  will  lap  over  on  the  frame  a  little  and 
hide  the  joint. 

But  here,  although  (see  illustration)  the  nail  holds  the  moulding 
close  against  the  frame,  it  also  catches  the  edge  of  the  panel  and 
prevents  it  moving.  The  result  is  that  cracks  appear  in  the  panel 
itself. 

It  does  not  improve  matters  much  if  the  moulding  is  glued  in,  for 
the  glue  almost  always  binds  both  moulding  and  panel  to  the  frame, 
so  that  a  rupture  will  occur  somewhere. 

The  cabinetmaker  avoids  these  difficulties.  First  he  cuts  a  rebate 
in  the  frame  on  the  finish  side.  In  this  the  moulding  is  glued  solidly 
so  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  frame  itself.  When  the  glue  is  dry  the 
varnished  panel  is  set  in  from  the  back  and  held  in  place  by  plain 
mouldings  nailed  to  the  frame.  This  leaves  the  panel  loose  and  free 
to  move  should  shrinkage  take  place.  The  object  in  varnishing  the 
panel  before  setting  it  is  that  if  any  movement  does  occur  it  will  not 
be  seen  by  the  exposure  of  a  line  of  unfinished  wood. 

Flush  panels  are  so  named  because  their  surface  is  level  with  the 
surrounding  frame.  They  are  set  in  a  rebate  from  the  back  and 
secured  by  a  nailed  moulding.  In  most  cases  a  bead  is  run  all  around 
the  edge  of  the  panel,  so  as  to  hide  the  joint  between  it  and  the 
frame.  Such  panels  are  used  for  the  back  of  cases  and  in  places 
where  no  decorative  effect  is  wanted. 

Panels  may  have  the  edges  beveled  or  rebated  below  their  sur- 
face, so  as  to  produce  a  sort  of  border  around  the  panel  itself.  Such 
panels  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  raised  panels,  to  distinguish  them 
from  a  flat,  even  surface. 

The  surface  of  a  panel  is  made  of  more  carefully  selected  wood 
than  that  used  for  mouldings  and  rails,  with  the  intention  of  having 
a  handsome  grain.  Veneers  are  chosen  that  have  been  cut  from  a 
portion  of  a  log  furnishing  strong  markings,  or  "figures,"  when 
polished,  and  these  are  sometimes  cut  in  smaller  pieces,  either  half  or 
quarter  the  size  of  the  panel,  and  placed  together  so  the  lines  of  the 
grain  will  form  a  pattern,  or  a  "picture."  At  other  times  a  design 
is  inlaid  on  the  panel  or  it  is  carved.  The  simplest  form  of  carved 


MOULDINGS  AND  PANELS 


RATE  XIV. 


FILLET.  BEAD.  CAVETTO.         OVOLO.       CYT1A  RECTA  AND  WVtRSA.    SCOTIA.        TORUS. 

CLASSIC     MOULDINGS 


FLUSH   PAHIL.  JOIWER5    MTH°D,  CABINET  HAKETS 

MtTHODS   °f ''SETTING  PANELS 


RAIL 


gy  ii 


M 


x 


SL 


BEVELLED    PANEL  INUVfJ).          *PAdCHMENT  PAHtL»  CARVED  PANEL . 

TREATflEMT  OFTHE  PANEL  SURFACE 


X 


<3LA»  FULl  SIZE 
A5   A  PAH  EL 


GLASS  DM   BLOCKS       M1RR9R5       DtVtLLto    GLASS, 


GLAZING.  71 

panel  is  that  with  the  surface  moulded  to  resemble,  more  or  less,  the 
folds  of  drapery,  and  called  linen  or  parchment  panels. 

By  arranging  the  mouldings  around  flat  panels,  so  as  to  produce 
forms  with  a  broken  outline,  the  stiff  rectangular  panel  is  avoided. 
Three  varieties  are  shown  on  Plate  XIV. 

Bookcases,  china  cabinets  and  others  of  the  same  class  of  case- 
work have  portions  of  their  sides  glazed  either  with  clear  glass  or 
mirrors. 

In  the  best  of  glazed  work  plate-glass  is  used,  but  where  some- 
thing less  expensive  is  wanted  the  best  quality  of  double-thick  sheet 
glass  is  used.  Anything  poorer  than  this  should  not  be  placed  in 
good  work.  Mirrors  should  always  be  of  plate-glass.  Glass  set  in 
doors  or  substituted  for  panel  work  is  cut  the  full  size  of  the  rebate 
opening  in  the  frame,  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  loose  moulding,  the 
same  as  a  panel.  Plate  XIV.  It  is  only  when  some  special  con- 
dition requires  it  that  the  glass  is  secured  in  place  by  putty  and 
glaziers'  points  instead  of  the  loose  moulding. 

Mirrors  are  not  often  cut  to  the  full  size,  but  are  a  trifle  smaller 
than  the  rebate  measure,  and  the  glass  is  held  in  place  by  a  number 
of  triangular  blocks,  about  three  inches  long,  placed  at  intervals  in 
the  rebate.  These  blocks  serve  to  wedge  the  glass  securely  in  place, 
that  it  may  not  slide  in  the  rebate,  and  they  also  reduce  to  a  mini- 
mum the  surface  of  wood  in  contact  with  the  coating  on  the  back  of 
the  mirror. 

The  silvering  is  protected  from  injury  by  a  paneled  backboard, 
screwed  to  the  frame  after  the  glass  is  fastened  in.  This  backboard 
must  not  touch  the  mirror  at  any  point. 

The  glass  is  held  in  front  by  a  moulding  set  in  a  rebate,  as  we 
have  described  for  paneling. 

Doors  are  composed  of  a  framework  enclosing  panels.  The  up- 
rights of  the  frame  are  the  stiles,  and  the  horizontal  parts  are  the 
rails.  They  are  hung  either  with  hinges  or  pivots.  The  former  are 
more  or  less  visible,  but  the  latter  are  concealed.  Plate  XV.  illus- 
trates various  applications  of  these  methods.  No.  i  shows  the  door 
hung  with  butts  and  without  a  rebate  for  the  door  to  shut  against. 
Such  a  door  would  be  used  in  cabinets  where  the  uninterrupted  joint 
between  the  edge  of  the  door  and  the  side  of  the  case  is  not  objec- 
tionable. Notice  also  that  unless  the  door  can  swing  through  an 
arc  of  1 80  degrees  the  width  of  the  opening  is  reduced  by  about  the 
thickness  of  the  door,  or  A  in  the  illustration.  In  most  instances  a... 


72  CASEWORK. 

rebate  to  receive  the  door  is  desirable ;  and  still  the  door  hung  with 
butts  would  reduce  the  size  of  the  opening,  as  at  A,  No.  2,  unless  the 
rebate  is  as  deep  as  the  door  is  thick,  No.  3. 

Doors  for  cabinets  having  drawers  within  are  hung  this  latter 
way,  as  it  enables  one  to  pull  out  the  drawer,  though  the  door  is 
open  at  the  right  angle  only.  No.  4  shows  how  a  door  may  be  hung 
when  the  design  calls  for  a  pilaster  on  the  corner  of  the  case  and 
yet  the  conditions  require  that  a  maximum  width  be  given  to  the 
interior.  An  article  having  the  door  hung  in  this  manner  must  stand 
sufficiently  away  from  the  wall  or  other  pieces  of  furniture  to  permit 
the  pilaster  to  turn  on  the  axis  of  the  hinge. 


Pill    OR.  CEttTRl 
HWGL 


The  pivot,  pin,  or  center  hinge,  is  invisible,  and  in  high-class  work 
this  is  an  advantage.  It  is  also  strong,  and  is  screwed  to  the  upper 
edge  of  the  top  rail  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  bottom  rail  of  the 
door  in  a  position  such  that  a  strain  does  not  start  the  screws.  The 
illustration  shows  what  it  is  like.  There  are  two  bars  of  metal, 
narrow  enough  to  be  entirely  concealed  by  the  thickness  of  the 
door.  In  one  of  these  bars  is  a  hole  receiving  a  pin  on  the  other  bar. 
One  of  the  bars,  that  with  the  socket,  is  set  in  the  frame  receiving 
the  door ;  the  other  is  on  the  door  itself,  and  when  complete  the  door 
turns  on  the  pin  as  an  axis. 

It  is  well  to  set  the  pivot  on  a  line  through  the  middle  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  door  and  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  door,  plus  an 
eighth  of  an  inch,  away  from  the  post  against  which  the  door  turns ; 
that  is,  C  =B  +  ^  inch.  No.  5  shows  a  pivoted  door  in  a  position 
where  it  reduces  the  width  of  the  door  opening,  and  No.  6  shows  the 
pivoted  edge  of  the  door  turning  in  a  hollow  prepared  for  it  and 
provided  with  stops,  against  which  the  edge  of  the  door  strikes  either 
when  open  or  shut. 

The  thickness  of  door  rails  is  dependent  entirely  on  the  size  and 
design  of  the  door,  but  the  bottom  rail  is  made  a  little  wider  than 
the  top  rail  and  side  stiles,  which  are  of  the  same  width. 


HANGING  DOORS  AND  LIDS 


DRAWER 


SLIDING   DOORS. 


75 


The  meeting  stiles  of  a  pair  of  doors  are  sometimes  rebated,  so 
the  joint  does  not  extend  straight  through. 

Sliding  doors  may  be  provided  with  rollers  at  the  bottom  or  the 
top,  or  they  may  slide  in  a  groove  without  aids  for  reducing  friction. 
Sliding  doors  are  often  in  pairs,  and  then  it  is  necessary  to  arrange 
that  they  close  tightly  at  the  meeting  stiles,  which  overlap  a  little. 


A5TMGM. 


Ss;      PARTING  Siw. 


I 


11 


DOOfc. 


There  is  more  or  less  space  between  the  doors,  due  to  the  thickness 
of  a  "parting  strip"  at  the  bottom  and  top,  forming  the  groove  in 
which  the  door  slides.  To  close  this  space  a  thin  strip,  sufficiently 
wide  to  extend  across  it,  is  fastened  to  the  back  edge  of  each  door. 
When  the  doors  are  closed  these  two  strips  are  in  contact  and  lap 
over  each  other. 


76  CASEWORK. 

Desk  lids  may  be  considered  as  doors  hung  by  the  bottom  rail,  but 
they  seldom  open  wider  than  an  angle  approximately  90  degrees, 
and  the  method  of  hinging  is  dependent  on  the  way  the  lid  is 
supported. 

When  ordinary  butts  are  used,  it  is  necessary  to  have  slides  that 
pull  out  beneath  the  lid  for  it  to  rest  on,  or  else  metal  elbow  pieces, 
chains  or  quadrants  are  fastened  above.  Otherwise  the  weight  of  a 
person's  arms  on  the  lid  when  it  is  down  will  break  the  hinges. 

Illustration  No.  7,  Plate  XV.,  represents  a  section  of  a  lid  hung  in 
this  way,  and  No.  8  is  a  method  without  slides  or  quadrants  that  may 
be  used  for  lids  of  cabinets  where  no  great  weight  is  to  come  on 
them  and  butts  are  used.  Here  the  hinge  is  not  directly  on  the  edge 
of  the  lid,  but  is  set  a  little  beyond  it,  the  lid  and  hanging  stile  having 
been  cut  on  a  bevel  to  permit  the  lid  swinging  down  to  the  horizontal. 
A  portion  of  the  case  (X),  just  below  the  lid,  is  also  arranged  so  the 
lid  when  down  will  rest  on  it. 

The  strongest  lid  hinge  is  the  pivot.  No.  9,  Plate  XV.  The  lid 
when  down  presses  against  Y  and  Z,  and  the  hinge  itself  is  con- 
structed so  as  to  take  part  of  the  strain. 


f 


It  is  practically  the  same  as  the  pin  hinge  described  above.  The 
part  serving  as  a  socket  for  the  pin  is,  however,  shaped  somewhat 
like  a  rectangle,  with  a  small  projecting  square  on  one  side  near  one 
corner.  The  other  corner  of  the  side  from  which  this  square  pro- 
jects is  rounded  off  as  a  quadrant,  with  the  socket  for  a  center.  The 
pin  bar  is  also  extended  sufficiently  to  receive  a  second  pin,  located 
so  that  it  just  clears  the  edge  of  the  quadrant  when  the  two  parts  of 
the  hinge  are  placed  together,  and  will  strike  against  the  projecting 
piece  of  the  socket  plate. 

If  now  the  socket  plate  is  properly  fastened  to  the  side  of  the 
cabinet,  the  parts  of  the  hinge  are  in  the  position  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration when  the  lid  is  turned  down.  The  second  pin  of  the  bar 
strikes  against  the  projection  on  the  socket  plate  and  acts  as  a  stop. 
This  brings  the  greater  strain  on  the  metal  of  the  hinge  itself.  The 


DESK   LIDS.  77 

location  of  the  pivot  on  the  edge  of  the  stiles  is  such  that  the  screws 
are  not  pulled  out  if  an  extra  strain  is  put  on  them.  As  in  every  drop 
lid,  there  is  more  or  less  leverage ;  there  will  be  some  spring  when 
weight  is  applied  to  it.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  use  aids  for  sup- 
port— either  quadrants  or  braces. 

The  lid  for  small  compartments  of  desks,  or  the  desk  lid  itself, 
may  be  hung  so  as  to  raise  and  then  slide  back  out  of  the  way.  A 
section  of  a  lid  of  this  kind  is  given  in  No.  10,  Plate  XV.  The  dotted 
line  shows  the  position  of  the  lid  raised  and  ready  to  be  pushed  back 
into  the  pocket.  When  the  lid  is  down,  the  upper  edge  strikes 
against  the  back  of  a  moulding,  so  as  to  hide  entirely  the  pocket 
into  which  it  slides  when  raised.  The  hinge  is  on  the  lower  edge  of 
a  rebate  cut  in  the  lid.  This  rebate  matches  a  similar  one  cut  in  a 
strip  fitted  so  as  to  slide  easily  in  the  pocket,  yet  provided  with  stops 
to  prevent  its  being  pulled  out.  When  the  lid  is  raised,  this  guide 
and  the  lid  halve  together,  so  as  to  become  practically  one  piece. 

The  cylinder  top  desk  is  made  so  the  lid  will  slide  back  into  a 
pocket,  the  edges  of  the  lid  moving  in  grooves  cut  in  the  sides  of  the 
desk.  When  the  desk  is  small,  a  lid  working  in  this  way  does  not 
slide  back  sufficiently  to  expose  a  convenient  writing  surface.  The 
difficulty  is  overcome  by  making  the  writing  surface  so  it  may  be 
pulled  out  about  two-thirds  the  depth  of  the  desk,  and  the  pigeon- 
holes, with  the  inkstand,  etc.,  may  be  placed  immediately  above  at 
the  back  of  the  desk.  This  arrangement  makes  quite  a  roomy  writ- 
ing table  of  one  that  would  otherwise  be  small.  It  is  convenient  to 
construct  such  desks  so  one  operation  will  pull  out  the  slide  and 
open  the  lid,  instead  of  requiring  each  movement  to  take  place 
separately. 

There  are  many  ways  of  doing  this,  and  the  one  illustrated  (No. 
II,  Plate  XV.)  is  by  Sheraton.  A  metal  bar  is  pivoted  to  the  edge 
of  the  lid  near  the  back  and  it  is  similarly  attached  to  the  slide.  This 
bar  has  a  slot  cut  at  the  lower  end,  in  which  the  pivot  on  the  slide 
may  move,  and  another  slot  near  the  middle,  in  which  moves  a 
pivoted  guide  attached  to  the  side  of  the  desk.  This  latter  pivot  is 
the  central  point  about  which  turns  the  bar  connecting  the  slide  and 
lid ;  so  when  either  is  moved  the  other  moves  also.  There  are  two 
of  these  connecting  bars,  one  at  each  end  of  the  desk. 

Shelving  in  cabinets  and  bookcases  is  made  so  as  to  be  adjust- 
able to  any  heights.  Sometimes  they  are  supported  by  four  pins, 
one  at  each  corner  of  the  shelf,  placed  in  holes  bored  in  the  sides  of 


78  CASEWORK. 

the  case.  These  holes  are  one  inch  or  more  apart,  and  by  changing 
the  location  of  the  pins  the  shelf  is  adjusted. 

At  other  times  four  vertical  notched  strips  are  fastened  to  the  ends 
of  the  case,  two  at  each  side,  and  in  the  notches  cleats  are  placed 
on  which  the  shelves  rest.  By  shifting  the  cleats  the  shelves  are 
placed  as  desired. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  dimensions  taken  from  existing 
examples  of  case  work : 

DIMENSIONS  OF  CASEWORK. 


-Body- 


Variety.  Width.      Decth.      Height.  Remarks. 

Bureau 45  20%  36% 

51  23  37% 

44       48  22  36% 

54  20  42 

Bookkeepers'  desk 60  33  42 

4    60  32  44  Deck  11  ins.,  slope  22. 

Chiffonier 39  20  48 

36  20  51 

Cheval  glass 25  ...  65 

Commode 16  16  31 

Sideboard 84  32  30 

Wardrobe 36  19  69 

54  24  96 

Note:    All  dimensions  are  in  inches. 

Bedsteads. 

Bedsteads  have  a  head  board,  a  foot  board  and  two  side  rails.  The 
head  and  foot  board  are  often  panellel,  and  sometimes  the  side  rails 
also.  In  the  old-style  bedstead  there  were  four  posts.  These  were 
joined  together  in  pairs  by  a  rail  above,  which  was  a  second  rail 
more  or  less  elaborately  decorated  by  sawing,  carving,  turning  or 
panelling,  thus  making  the  head  and  foot  boards  according  to  the 
position  they  occupied  when  united  by  two  rails  that  formed  the 
sides  of  the  bedsteads. 

The  side  rails,  with  the  lower  ones  of  the  head  and  foot  board, 
formed  the  frame,  across  which  cords  were  stretched  to  support  the 
mattress.  In  the  modern  bedsteads  the  arrangement  is  much  the 
same,  except  that  in  many  of  them  the  post  is  reduced  to  its  lowest 
terms,  and  exists  only  as  the  stile  for  the  panel  work  of  which  the 
head  and  foot  board  is  composed. 

The  side  rails  are  made  much  wider  than  in  olden  times,  that  they 
may  hide  the  box  spring,  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  cording, 
and  they  are  constructed  so  they  may  be  removed  and  replaced  as 
desired.  There  are  many  contrivances  for  accomplishing  this,  each 
manufacturer  having  his  preference. 


BEDSTEADS. 


79 


A  strong  and  substantial  way  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  ends  of  the  rails  are  provided  with  tenons  that  fit  mortises  in 
the  posts  of  head  and  foot  boards,  and  with  screws  that  work  in  nuts 
sunk  in  the  posts.  These  screws  fasten  the  rails  and  end  boards 
securely  together,  while  the  tenons  stiffen  the  joint,  preventing  any 
twisting  of  the  sides. 


l4fr| 


BEDSTEAD 


On  the  lower  edge  of  the  side  rails,  inside,  is  a  ledge  to  support 
the  spring.  The  box  spring  is  sometimes  supported  on  slats  and 
sometimes  on  the  side  rail  of  the  bedstead,  a  cleat  having  been  placed 
on  it  so  as  to  rest  on  the  ledge  of  the  rails. 

The  mattress  is  placed  on  the  springs.  In  designing  a  bedstead 
it  ought  to  be  constructed  so  the  top  of  the  mattress  will  not  be  much 
over  twenty-five  inches  above  the  floor. 

Bed  slats  are  about  an  inch  thick,  a  double  box  spring  about  ten 
inches  thick,  and  a  good  mattress  seven  inches  thick. 

To  keep  within  the  limit  of  height,  then,  the  upper  edge  of  the 
support  for  the  slats  should  not  be  more  than  seven  inches  from  the 
floor.  But  slats  are  sometimes  omitted,  and  then  the  side  rails  may 
be  set  higher,  so  the  springs  can  hang  a  little  below  them  without 
being  seen. 


go  CASEWORK. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  measurements  of  bedsteads: 

DIMENSIONS  OF  BEDSTEADS. 


Variety. 

Single 

,  Ins 
Lengtn. 

78 

ide.  x 
Width. 

42 
42 
58  ^ 
56 

.  Height.  . 
Foot.    Head. 
40            62 
41            60 
42            63 
36            67 

Width. 
Side 
Rail. 

10 

11 
13 

Height. 
Bottom 
Side  Rail. 

10 

78 

Double  bed 

78 

78 

Note:    All  dimensions  are  in  inches. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Drawer. 

NEARLY  every  article  of  furniture  may  be  provided  with  a 
drawer;  and  the  ease  with  which  it  slides  and  its  accuracy 
of  fittings  are  tests  of  good  workmanship.  To  have  a  wide,  deep 
drawer  slide  so  easily  that  the  pressure  of  a  finger  placed  against  the 
front  at  one  end  is  sufficient  to  move  it,  means  careful  adjustment, 
skilled  labor  and  the  best  materials. 

The  drawer  is  composed  of  a  front,  back,  two  sides  and  a  bottom. 
The  front  is  the  only  part  visible  when  the  drawer  is  closed,  and 
upon  its  treatment  depends  the  decorative  value  of  the  drawer.  It 
may  be  considered  as  a  panel  surrounded  by  mouldings,  or  it  may 
be  left  plain,  depending  on  the  hardware  for  its  ornamentation. 

If  the  front  is  on  the  same  plane  as  the  surrounding  surfaces  of 
the  case,  the  line  of  the  joint  about  the  drawer  is  too  clearly  defined. 
It  is  better  to  hide  this  joint  by  allowing  the  drawer  to  slide  in  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  beyond  the  face  of  the  framework,  or  to  place  a 
bead  all  around  the  edge  of  the  drawer. 

Sometimes  the  front  of  the  drawer  has  its  edge  rebated,  so  that 
instead  of  sliding  into  the  pocket  beyond  the  surface  of  the  case,  it 
projects  beyond,  and  the  lip  of  the  rebate  covers  the  joint  around  the 
drawer.  The  sides  of  the  drawer  are  dovetailed  to  the  front,  and 
the  bottom  is  either  grooved  directly  in  the  sides  or  in  strips  glued 
to  them.  This  latter  method  is  used  when  the  sides  are  too  thin  for 
grooving.  The  full  thickness  of  the  bottom  is  not  grooved  into  the 
front  and  sides,  but  its  edge  is  reduced  in  thickness  by  beveling  or 
rebating,  thus  permitting  the  bottom  to  be  placed  low  without 
making  the  portion  of  the  sides  below  the  groove  too  thin. 

The  space  between  the  lower  edge  of  the  drawer  front  and  the 
bottom  at  its  thickest  part  is  about  one-eighth  inch.  Hence  the 
interior  depth  of  a  drawer  is  the  depth  of  the  front  minus  the  thick- 
ness of  the  bottom  plus  one-eighth  inch.  The  average  drawer,  having 
a  bottom  of  half  an  inch,  would  therefore  have  an  interior  depth  five- 


82  THE    DRAWER. 

eighths  of  an  inch  less  than  it  appears  on  the  front.  Wide  drawers, 
like  those  extending  the  full  depth  of  a  bureau,  sometimes  have  the 
bottom  divided  through  the  middle  from  front  to  back  by  a  rail  or 
muntin.  This  prevents  the  bottom  from  bending  beneath  the  weight 
placed  on  it,  and  also  decreases  the  tendency  to  warp.  The  bottom 
should  be  long  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  back  piece.  It  is  also 
grooved  into  the  front  where  it  is  fastened,  but  it  ought  not  to  be 
secured  elsewhere.  This  method  of  construction  admits  of  the 
bottom  shrinking,  but  as  it  is  fastened  on  the  front  only  and  free  to 
move  elsewhere,  it  will  not  crack;  and  the  extra  length  beyond  the 
back  prevents  an  opening  appearing  at  that  end. 

The  back  may  be  grooved  or  dovetailed  in  the  sides.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  different  parts  are  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  drawer. 
For  ordinary  work  the  front  is  seldom  more  than  seven-eighths  inch 
thick,  and  the  sides,  bottom  and  back  more  than  one-half  inch. 

In  casework  the  drawer  slides  in  a  pocket,  and  often  there  are 
several  drawers,  one  above  the  other.  When  enclosed,  the  drawer 
slides  on  a  supporting  frame,  the  front  rail  of  which  is  called  the 
"bearer,"  and  the  side  rails  "runners."  Close  against  the  sides  and 
supported  by  the  runners  are  narrow  strips  of  wood,  that  serve  to 
keep  the  drawer  in  place.  These  are  the  "guides." 

Sometimes  the  frame  between  the  drawers  is  open,  and  if  one  of 
the  series  is  removed  that  beneath  may  be  emptied  by  reaching 
through  the  opening  above.  In  better  work  the  frame  is  fitted  with 
a  panel,  called  a  dust  panel,  that  prevents  this. 

The  drawer  is  not  always  enclosed.  Sometimes  it  is  hung  beneath 
a  table  top  and  exposed  to  view.  When  used  in  this  way,  cleats  are 
fastened  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  sides  and  slide  in  grooved  pieces 
screwed  to  the  underside  of  the  table  top.  If  the  cleats  set  close  to 
the  upper  edge  of  the  sides  of  the  drawer,  they  increase  the  thickness 
of  this  edge,  which  is  in  contact  with  the  under  surface  of  the  table 
top.  As  this  surface  may  not  be  true,  the  drawer  will  not  work 
smoothly  unless  hung  loosely. 

A  better  arrangement  is  the  one  illustrated,  with  the  cleat  set  a 
little  below  the  edge  of  the  drawer  and  fitted  smoothly  in  the  grooved 
bearer.  The  edge  of  th*  drawer  may  then  be  set  so  as  not  to  rub 
against  the  top  of  the  table,  and  yet  the  drawer  is  held  secure  by  the 
cleats  sliding  in  the  grooved  supports.  Sometimes  the  groove  is  in 
the  side  of  the  drawer  and  the  bearer  is  provided  with  a  tongue  that 
fits  it,  reversing  the  method  just  described. 


fuitXVI. 


THE    DRAWER 


Gil 


VP1/ST  RAHEL 


OE' 


5ECTiO«  THROUGH    FH<>NT. 


THROUGH    BACK  AND  SIDE, 


HlTIGtD     DRAWER 


DRAWER     WITH    SLIDES.  85 

When  it  is  desirable  to  place  a  drawer  in  a  piece  of  furniture 
having  a  triangular  plan,  for  instance,  a:  corner  cabinet,  the 
guides  at  the  side  are  useless,  as  the  drawer  does  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  them  except  when  pushed  in.  As  soon  as  the  drawer  is 
pulled  out  ever  so  little  it  no  longer  fills  the  width  of  the  pocket. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  slide  a  drawer  of  this  shape,  a  rail  is  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  bottom  the  length  of  the  drawer  from  front  to 
back.  The  underside  of  this  rail  is  grooved  over  a  tongued  strip 
immediately  beneath  it,  that  serves  as  a  guide  to  keep  the  drawer  in 
the  middle  of  the  pocket.  Such  an  arrangement  is  not  always  feas- 
ible, and  then  the  triangular  drawer  is  pivoted  at  the  front  edge;  so 
instead  of  sliding  it  swings  out  of  the  pocket. 

For  music  cabinets,  library  cases,  etc.,  the  use  of  the  drawer  may 
make  it  necessary  to  pull  it  out  sufficiently  that  the  entire  length  can 
be  seen.  A  drawer  constructed  in  the  usual  way  would,  if  pulled  out 
so  far,  fall  to  the  floor  as  soon  as  the  hand  left  it.  A  drawer  is  made, 
however,  with  slides  at  the  sides  that  support  it  when  out  its  full 
length.  The  illustration  shows  such  a  method.  The  side  of  the 
drawer  is  about  twice  as  thick  as  ordinarily,  and  the  lower  portion 
is  rebated  about  half  its  depth  and  thickness.  In  this  rebate  a  slide 
is  fitted,  exactly  filling  it.  The  rear  end  of  the  slide  is  increased  in 
width  to  the  full  depth  of  the  drawer.  When  the  drawer  is  closed 
the  slide  and  the  side  of  the  drawer  are  practically  one.  When  the 
drawer  is  pulled  out  to  a  fixed  point  the  slide  catches  against  a  stop 
and  does  not  move  any  further,  but  the  drawer  then  moves  along  the 
slide  until  it  is  nearly  or  entirely  out  of  the  pocket,  when  it  is  stopped 
by  a  pin  moving  in  a  groove  in  the  side  of  the  slide.  The  drawer  is 
then  resting  entirely  on  the  slides,  which  are  sufficiently  far  in  the 
pocket  to  carry  the  weight,  and  the  widened  portion  at  the  rear  end 
of  them  filling  the  space  between  the  runners  prevents  upsetting. 

When  a  pair  of  doors  close  against  a  case  of  drawers  another 
system  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  above.  The  doors  can  be  hung 
so  as  to  open  to  a  position  in  the  plane  of  the  sides  of  the  cabinet  and 
held  there  by  stops.  Their  inner  surface  may  also  be  provided  with 
runners,  on  which  the  drawer  can  slide  when  it  is  pulled  out  beyond 
the  pocket. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Ornamentation  of  Furniture. 

IN  addition  to  the  general  outline  and  proportion  of  furniture,  its 
appearance  is  dependent  upon  ornamentation.  This  should  not, 
however,  become  so  important  as  to  destroy  the  constructive  ele- 
ments or  the  utility.  A  properly  designed  article  may  be  quite  as 
pleasing  when  entirely  devoid  of  ornament  as  when  its  surfaces  are 
covered  by  enrichments  of  some  sort. 

In  many  instances  what  is  termed  ornament  is  but  a  roughening 
or  coloring  of  the  surface,  in  hopes  to  divert  the  attention  from  bad 
forms  or  poor -construction.  It  is  understood  that  woodwork  free 
from  surface  ornament  must  be  well  made,  the  wood  carefully 
selected,  and  care  taken  to  use  together  pieces  of  the  same  color  and 
figure  of  grain.  The  joints,  unless  properly  made,  become  con- 
spicuous, exposing  the  poor  workmanship.  The  finish — that  is,  the 
varnishing  and  rubbing,  must  be  well  done,  that  the  wood  may  not 
appear  to  be  covered  by  a  candied  surface  full  of  lumps  and  streaks. 
Work  well  made  and  finished  feels  to  the  hand  almost  as  soft  and 
smooth  as  silk  velvet,  while  to  the  eye  the  grain  of  the  wood  shows 
clear  and  sparkling  beneath  the  thin,  well  rubbed  film  of  varnish 
which  fills  the  pores  yet  scarcely  more  than  covers  the  surface.  In 
such  work  the  beauty  is  dependent  upon  pleasing  outlines,  good 
proportions  and  workmanship.  The  smallest  details,  like  softening 
the  angle,  rounding  a  corner,  etc.,  require  attention,  because  of 
their  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  whole. 

There  are  times  when  it  is  desirable  to  do  more  than  fill  the 
demands  of  service,  and  additional  expense  may  be  incurred  by 
enriching  the  simple  form  with  decoration. 

There  are  several  methods  of  doing  this.  Perhaps  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  do  well,  and  yet  the  most  common,  is  carving.  It  can  be 
used  as  a  surface  ornament,  treated  as  a  panel,  either  cut  below  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  or  in  relief.  The  constructive  parts,  as  posts, 
rails,  mouldings,  etc.,  may  be  also  in  ornamental  forms.  In  the  first 


CARVING.  87. 

instance — panel  work — the  problem  is  one  of  designing  an  orna- 
ment to  properly  fill  the  space,  keeping  in  mind  the  effect  of  light 
and  shade.  The  pattern  is  in  relief  of  varying  planes,  and  the 
different  parts  must  be  of  a  size  that  will  be  in  keeping  with  the 
space  filled  as  well  as  the  entire  article. 

The  ornament  may  closely  fill  the  whole  space  or  be  loosely 
scattered  over  the  surface,  but  in  either  instance  it  should  seem  to 
belong  where  it  is,  and  not  as  if  it  might  be  placed  elsewhere  or  was 
floating  about  in  a  space  much  too  large  for  it. 

In  some  kinds  of  furniture  may  be  seen  small  ornaments  in  high 
relief  cut  from  a  block  glued  in  the  middle  of  a  plain  surface  many 
times  the  length  and  width  of  the  ornament.  Such  carving  appears 
as  if  stuck  on,  even  if  it  is  well  executed;  for  it  is  wrongly  placed 
and  inadequate  to  the  space  it  occupies.  It  is  not  because  it  is  glued 
on  that  makes  it  uninteresting,  as  might  be  supposed,  but  because  it 
is  badly  designed.  Had  the  surface  of  the  solid  wood  been  cut 
away  to  leave  carving  of  the  same  design  in  relief,  a  similar  feeling 
of  its  having  been  applied  would  exist.  Nevertheless,  the  practice 
of  gluing  on  carving  should  be  discouraged. 

When  the  constructive  parts  are  carved,  care  should  be  taken  to 
design  the  ornament  so  the  contour  of  the  part  is  not  destroyed. 
Instead  of  detracting  from  the  form,  it  ought  to  enforce  it.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  keeping  the  principal  masses  of  the  orna- 
ment well  within  the  boundary  lines  of  the  part  decorated  and  by 
making  the  ornamental  growths  follow  the  direction  of  the  struc- 
tural lines. 

If  the  carving  is  on  the  surface  of  a  chair  back  where  it  may  be 
leaned  against,  it  should  not  be  of  such  a  high  relief  as  to  be  dis- 
agreeable or  so  sharp  as  to  be  dangerous  to  the  clothing. 

Plain  surfaces  have  quite  as  much  value  as  those  that  are  orna- 
mented, and  by  bringing  them  in  conjunction,  so  as  to  secure  a 
contrast,  the  best  results  are  obtained. 

It  has  been  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter  (page  10)  that  the 
wood  used  for  the  construction  has  an  influence  on  the  design.  This 
is  especially  true  of  carved  ornament.  Although  it  may  be  possible 
to  do  delicate  carving  in  the  coarse  grained  woods,  it  is  certainly 
not  good  taste  to  do  so.  In  the  close  grained  woods,  like  satinwood, 
mahogany  and  maple,  we  expect  to  see  delicate  and  fine  work,  while 
in  oak,  ash  and  walnut  we  at  once  look  for  a  different  sort  of  thing. 

Carved  surfaces,  with  the  background  cut  entirely  through — that 


88  ORNAMENTATION. 

is,  perforated — are  serviceable  forms  of  ornamentation  for  chairs, 
tables.,  and  occasionally  for  case  work. 

What  has  been  said  relative  to  surface  carving  is  applicable  to 
this  style  of  work.  The  design  ought  to  be  of  a  kind  in  which  the 
spaces  and  the  solids  balance  each  other  properly,  and  no  portion 
should  be  cut  around  so  as  to  leave  it  joined  to  the  rest  of  the  work 
at  one  point  only.  Aside  from  the  poor  appearance  of  such  a 
form,  it  is  weak  in  construction  and  likely  to  split  off. 

Plate  XVII.  illustrates  perforated  carving  in  use  on  chair  backs, 
and  shows  how  the  parts  are  joined.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
perforated  ornament  is  confined  to  the  slat  in  the  middle  of  the  back, 
one-half  of  which  is  drawn  as  it  appears  when  finished,  while  the 
other  half  is  only  blocked  out  ready  for  ornament. 

This  is  quite  clear  in  the  shield-back  design,  where  the  middle  slat 
is  simple  in  form.  The  other  chair  has  a  more  elaborate  slat,  and 
its  character  as  such  is  almost  hidden  by  the  form  of  the  ornament. 
It  should  be  noticed  in  designing  a  back  of  this  sort  that  the  general 
outlines  are  first  determined,  keeping  in  mind  the  constructive  prin- 
ciples. In  the  chair  illustrated  the  outline  of  the  back  is  drawn  first ; 
next  the  ellipses  composing  the  slat,  and  finally  the  carving.  This 
latter  follows  carefully  the  lines  of  the  composition,  so  as  not  to 
destroy  the  original  forms.  The  acanthus  on  the  sides  of  the  center 
ellipse  lap  close  about  it,  and  as  the  opening  in  the  middle  of  this 
ellipse  was  too  large  for  practical  purposes  or  appearance  the  group 
of  husk  ornaments  was  placed  in  the  middle. 

Where  the  top  of  the  slat,  in  the  form  of  a  horizontal  ellipse,  joins 
the  top  rail  of  the  back  a  dowel  is  placed.  The  thickness  of  the 
material  included  in  the  outlines  of  the  ellipse  is  hardly  sufficient  to 
make  a  strong  joint,  and  to  have  increased  the  thickness  at  this  point 
only  would  have  destroyed  the  appearance  of  the  design,  unless 
some  way  had  been  taken  to  prevent  it. 

This  was  done  by  turning  a  scroll  at  the  point  where  the  dowel 
occurs  and  filling  in  between  the  scroll  and  top  rail  with  a  small 
acanthus.  This  gives  the  increased  material  without  injuring  the 
appearance,  and  is  a  rational  method  of  using  carved  ornament. 

Applique  of  metal  work  is  a  form  of  relief  ornamentation,  in  many 
respects  closely  related  to  carving.  It  may  be  either  cast  or  wrought. 
Castings,  called  ormolu,  are  usually  of  brass  plated  with  gold  and 
finished  a  dull  color.  They  are  especially  used  in  the  styles  of  Louis 
XV.,  Louis  XVI.  and  Empire.  In  the  Louis  XV.  style  much  of  the 


METAL     APPLIQUE.  91 

ornament  is  applied  in  places  where  carving  might  have  been  used, 
and  it  is  properly  joined  with  the  lines  of  the  article  so  as  to  become 
a  part  of  them.  In  the  Louis  XVI.,  to  some  degree,  and  in  the 
Empire  style  almost  entirely,  the  applique  ornaments  are  fastened 
directly  on  a  plain  surface  without  any  relation  to  the  construction 
whatever,  as  the  article  is  complete  without  them.  The  beauty  of 
their  use  depends  on  the  arrangement  of  the  pieces  in  relation  to 
each  other,  the  way  they  fill  the  space  which  they  occupy,  and  on  the 
design  and  execution  of  the  metal  work  itself.  Much  of  the  metal 
work  in  ordinary  use  is  poor  in  both  respects.  Perhaps  the  design 
is  good  and  the  pattern  was  well  modelled,  but  so  many  copies  have 
been  made,  each  cast  from  a  previous  moulding,  instead  of  from  the 
original  pattern,  that  all  form  and  crispness  is  lost.  Such  work  is 
neither  handsome  nor  decorative,  and  the  designer  should  discourage 
its  use  whenever  he  can.  In  the  best  French  examples,  applique 
metal  work  is  carefully  cast,  exquisitely  chased,  so  it  becomes  a 
beautiful  piece  of  workmanship,  and  it  may  be  admired  as  such, 
even  though  its  use  is  not  approved.  When  wrought  metal  work  is 
applied  to  furniture  it  is  usually  in  the  form  of  hinge  plates,  lock 
plates  or  ornamented  straps  binding  parts  of  the  woodwork  together. 
Furniture  decorated  in  this  way  is  best  made  of  a  coarse  grained 
wood  and  designed  with  large,  flat  surfaces,  on  which  the  metal 
may  be  applied  for  ornamental  effect.  Good  results  are  obtained  by 
sinking  the  metal  work  so  it  is  level  with  the  wood  surface,  particu- 
larly when  in  the  form  of  rosettes. 

The  marking  of  the  grain  of  woods  used  for  furniture  is  in  itself 
an  ornamentation,  and  many  times  it  is  quite  sufficient.  But  to 
increase  its  decorative  effects  veneers  cut  in  various  ways  are  used. 
A  veneer  is  a  thin  slice  of  wood,  and  in  the  choice  woods  of  the 
furniture  maker  many  pieces  with  rich  figures  in  the  grain  can  be 
had  as  veneers  that  otherwise  could  not  be  obtained  in  shape  to  use. 
Then,  also,  by  cutting  a  log  in  different  ways,  the  beauty  of  the 
grain  is  exposed  so  that  its  value  is  increased. 

The  veneers  are  not  always  used  entirely  like  so  many  boards. 
They  are  sometimes  cut  in  geometrical  patterns,  varying  in  size,  and 
the  pieces  placed  side  by  side  in  such  a  manner  that  the  grain  of 
adjoining  pieces  runs  in  different  directions,  thus  covering  the  sur- 
face with  an  almost  inconspicuous  diaper  pattern. 

In  this  method  of  using  veneers  but  one  kind  of  wood  is  required, 
though  at  times  two  or  more  may  be  used.  When  a  color  effect  is 


92  ORNAMENTATION. 

wanted,  marquetry  is  used,  introducing  the  various  colored  woods, 
metal,  shell  or  ivory,  in  the  form  of  ornament  on  a  ground  of  the 
wood  of  which  the  furniture  is  constructed. 

There  are  no  special  difficulties  to  be  avoided  in  designing  a 
pattern  for  inlay.  Almost  any  ornament  that  appears  well  in  flat 
colors  will  make  good  inlay,  so  that  the  problem  is  one  of  designing 
a  conventional  ornament  suited  to  decorate  the  space  when  rendered 
in  flat  colors. 

The  nearest  approach  to  inlay  is  ornament  painted  on  the  surface 
of  the  wood.  This  has  been  a  common  and  handsome  method  of 
decorating  furniture,  though  it  is  not  now  popular.  One  method  is 
to  treat  all  the  ornament  flat,  similar  to  inlay;  another  is  to  paint 
natural  forms  in  a  realistic  way.  The  ornament  is  sometimes  painted 
on  the  varnished  surface  of  natural  wood,  and  again,  it  is  placed  on 
an  enamel.  In  one  class  of  work,  painting  is  executed  on  a  panel 
first  covered  by  silver  or  gold  leaf,  the  design  introducing  figures, 
pastoral  scenes,  architectural  compositions,  etc. 

The  surrounding  parts  of  the  article  are  thickly  varnished,  and  at 
times  specks  of  gold  leaf  are  mixed  with  the  varnish.  Such  work  is 
more  or  less  an  imitation  of  Japanese  lacquer  work,  but  is  known  as 
Vernis  Martin,  because  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  the  brothers 
Martin  secured  the  exclusive  right  to  make  furniture  varnished  in 
this  way,  they  claiming  to  have  discovered  the  secret  of  making  the 
lacquer  used. 

There  remains  another  means  for  ornamenting  the  plain  surface  of 
furniture  woodwork.  That  is  by  burning  on  it  with  a  metallic  point 
an  appropriate  design.  It  is  a  method  that  lends  itself  to  successful 
treatment  in  proper  hands.  Such  examples  as  are  most  frequently 
seen  are  not  desirable,  largely  because  the  patterns  burned  are  not 
suitable.  The  color  effect  is,  however,  charming,  running  from  soft 
brown  tones  of  a  pale  color  to  a  deep  rich  black.  A  combination  of 
carving  and  burning  gives  satisfactory  results.  The  wood  may  be 
light  in  color,  like  white  maple,  and  the  carving  somewhat  of  the 
Indian  (Hindoo)  order.  This,  when  complete,  has  the  edges  and 
background  burned  by  a  cautery.  The  work  then,  varnished  in  the 
usual  manner,  resembles  a  little  old  ivory  carving,  and  is  well  suited 
to  certain  rooms. 

Whatever  form  of  ornamentation  may  be  used,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  no  amount  of  decoration  will  make  a  poorly  propor- 
tioned or  badly  formed  article  good.  It  may  be  possible  to  divert  the 


DISPOSITION    OF   .ORNAMENT.  93 

eye  for  a  time  from  the  general  shape  by  placing  before  it  a  multi- 
tude of  small  details,  but  these  will  generally  become  tiresome,  and 
the  article  will  then  be  considered  as  a  whole. 

In  all  design  work  it  is  not  a  question  of  how  much  ornament,  but 
how  well  the  ornament  may  be  designed.  It  is  advisable  to  use  it 
sparingly,  erring,  if  it  may  be,  one  the  side  of  too  little  rather  than 
too  much.  The  object  of  ornament  is  to  decorate  the  otherwise  plain 
surfaces,  and  if  it  does  not  do  this  it  is  better  left  off. 

The  sources  of  pleasure  in  all  decorative  designs  are  the  beauty  of 
forms  employed  and  the  sense  of  study  having  been  given  to  their 
composition.  There  is  satisfaction  in  examining  a  piece  of  ornament 
to  find  it  has  been  arranged  with  some  regard  to  the  massing  of  the 
parts,  instead  of  being  merely  placed  at  random  in  a  careless  way. 
The  pleasure  of  discovering  the  plan  on  which  an  interesting  orna- 
ment was  built  has  been  experienced  by  every  designer.  The  foun- 
dation should  not  be  so  prominent  as  to  be  forced  on  the  mind,  but 
it  may  be  so  well  conceived  that  a  thoughtful  study  will  disclose  it 
hidden  among  the  beautiful  forms  of  which  the  composition  is 
made  up. 

What  may  be  termed  visibility  demands  attention  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  ornament.  Much  labor  and  expense  are  wasted  by  placing 
the  decorative  features  in  positions  where  they  are  not  seen,  or  if 
seen,  it  is  to  a  disadvantage.  There  is  no  reason  for  a  finely  executed 
ornament  so  near  the  floor  or  far  under  a  table  or  chair  that  it  can- 
not be  seen  without  getting  on  the  floor;  nor  is  there  any  sense  in 
decorating  the  frame  of  a  table  which  is  presumably  to  be  covered 
continuously  by  a  cloth. 

Though  everyone  recognizes  the  impropriety  of  the  bad  disposition 
of  ornament  in  this  respect,  it  is  not  easily  guarded  against.  The 
designer  will  find,  unless  he  is  extremely  careful,  that  he  has 
indicated  on  his  drawings  work  that  will  be  entirely  lost  to  view. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
Theories  of  Design,  Rendering,  Etc. 

IT  is  necessary  that  the  designer  should  be  familiar  with  the 
historic  styles  of  architecture  and  furniture.  He  should  also 
study  the  characteristic  forms  and  ornamental  details  of  each  period. 
This  will  enable  him  to  recognize  the  kind  of  furniture  needed  to 
harmonize  with  surroundings,  learn  what  has  been  made,  and  store 
his  mind  with  material  that  suggests  new  forms  and  ideas.  In  many 
instances  the  designer  is  required  to  make  his  work  correspond  with 
a  historic  style.  Then  his  best  course  is  to  hunt  up  good  existing 
examples  of  the  style  (not  necessarily  the  articles  he  is  working  on, 
but  any  in  the  style),  and  with  these  before  him  try  to  give  their 
character  to  the  problem.  When  not  restricted  in  any  way,  he  should 
work  out  the  forms  suggested  by  the  purpose  for  which  the  furniture 
is  used.  Study  this  purpose  and  consider  the  character  of  the  mate- 
rial used  in  meeting  it.  By  working  with  a  knowledge  of  these 
requirements,  a  design  may  be  made  that  does  not  resemble  any 
style.  It  is  more  probable,  however,  a  close  adherence  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  problem  will  lead  to  the  employment  of  a  style,  and  it 
is  well  that  it  should,  as  then  some  good  example  may  be  taken  as  a 
model.  There  are  excellent  models  for  modern  furniture  in  ail 
styles,  though  many  of  them  may  not  be  suited  to  exact  reproduction, 
owing  to  change  of  customs.  But,  when  possible,  furniture  should 
have  the  characteristics  of  some  recognized  style. 

Many  poor  designs  are  due  to  a  striving  to  produce  something  new 
and  original,  different  from  what  is  seen  every  day.  The  result  is 
rarely  pleasing.  Any  article  that  is  designed  with  the  intention  of 
making  it  odd,  peculiar  or  picturesque  is  usually  poor.  Aim  to  make 
it  beautiful ;  not  by  disregarding  styles,  but  by  working  upon 
rational  methods.  The  result  will  be  furniture  with  possibly  but  little 
ornament,  and  it  may  be  noticeably  plain  and  simple.  But  it  is  not 
desirable  that  all  furniture  should  be  richly  ornamented,  and  over- 
loading with  ornament  is,  of  course,  to  be  avoided.  Study  good 


THE    SKETCH.  95 

examples,  whether  ancient  or  modern,  and  if  an  article  appeals  to 
you  as  particularly  good  try  and  find  why  it  does  so.  Make  a  memo- 
randum of  it  and  put  it  in  a  scrap-book  for  future  use.  Often,  a  long 
time  after  seeing  several  objects,  it  happens  that  some  one  of  them  is 
recalled  vividly,  while  the  others  are  forgotten.  This  impression  is 
caused  either  by  the  value  of  the  material  from  which  the  object  is 
made,  the  beauty,  the  ingenuity  of  mechanical  construction,  or  the 
eccentricity  of  design,  and  it  should  be  valued  accordingly. 

The  secret  of  successful  study  is  the  knowing  what  to  select  and 
how  to  use  the  material  on  hand.  To  know  what  not  to  do  is  almost 
as  good  as  knowing  what  to  do.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  a 
draughtsman  will  make  a  good  sketch  for  an  article  unless  he  knows 
what  he  is  trying  to  draw.  The  object  should  be  as  clearly  defined  in 
the  mind  as  if  the  completed  work  was  before  him;  otherwise  his 
drawing  will  be  vague  and  uncertain. 

As  the  purpose  of  the  sketch  is  to  show  someone,  usually  a  person 
ignorant  of  conventional  methods  of  draughtsmanship,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  completed  furniture,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in 
making  the  sketch  accurate  and  showing  the  detail  in  a  way  that  will 
leave  little  doubt  in  the  mind  what  is  intended,  that  there  may  be  no 
cause  for  dissatisfaction  with  the  completed  article  because  the 
drawing  was  not  understood. 

The  sketch  should  represent  the  article  correctly,  and  sufficient 
skill  to  make  such  a  drawing  is  obtained  by  practice.  There  is  no 
better  preparation  for  designing  than  drawing  from  existing  ex- 
amples of  good  furniture.  By  sitting  in  front  of  a  chair,  for  in- 
stance, and  drawing  it  as  it  appears,  a  knowledge  of  the  way  its 
curves  and  lines  should  be  represented  in  a  sketch  is  obtained.  It 
should  be  drawn  as  it  is  seen,  not  as  it  is  known  to  be ;  that  is,  if  the 
curve  of  the  arm  looks  like  a  straight  line,  draw  it  so.  If  it  is 
necessary  that  the  curve  appear  on  the  sketch,  change  the  position 
of  the  object  so  as  to  present  the  line  as  it  is  wanted,  but  do  not  make 
the  drawing  incorrect  for  the  sake  of  presentation.  A  position  can 
easily  be  taken  that  will  show  all  that  is  necessary.  If  one  drawing 
does  not  suffice  to  do  so,  make  others  rather  than  draw  incorrectly. 

The  completed  sketch  should  be  as  perfect  a  picture  of  the  article 
as  the  draughtsman  can  make  it  in  the  time  available.  This  is 
preferably  a  perspective  drawing,  though  not  necessarily  one  con- 
structed mechanically.  In  fact,  a  free-hand  drawing,  made  without 
the  use  of  the  conventional  scales,  is  better.  Of  course,  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  and  rules  for  making  mechanical  perspective  is 


96  THEORIES,    ETC. 

necessary  to  draw  in  this  way,  and  if  this  knowledge  is  applied  as  the 
drawing  proceeds  the  result  will  be  satisfactory. 

The  object  may  be  drawn  of  any  convenient  size  and  in  a  position 
that  represents  it  to  the  best  advantage.  Certain  articles  may  be 
drawn  larger  than  others,  and  yet  appear  relatively  of  the  proper 
dimensions.  For  instance,  a  chair  may  be  drawn  quite  large  to  show 
all  its  details;  while  a  cabinet  is  better  sketched  at  a  smaller  scale, 
as  otherwise  it  appears  too  large. 

It  is  curious  that  to  the  unitiated  a  large  drawing  or  photograph 
represents  a  large  object,  and  vice  versa  a  small  drawing  a  small 
object.  So,  when  a  light,  delicate  piece  of  furniture  is  to  be  repre- 
sented the  sketch  should  be  small  and  delicately  drawn. 

Chairs  look  well  when  drawn  so  the  front  is  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  to  the  picture  plane  and  with  the  corner  nearest  to  the 
eye  at  a  scale  of  one  and  a  half  inches  to  the  foot. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  draughtsman  can  always  have  his 
ideas  sufficiently  formulated  to  enable  him  to  draw  a  picture  at  once. 
Some  preliminary  work  is  required.  A  scale  study  may  be  made  in 
orthographic  projection  to  determine  the  proportion  of  the  whole 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts,  and  occasionally  rough,  full  size 
drawings  of  parts  requiring  special  study  are  made. 

These  projection  drawings  may  be  of  any  convenient  scale,  but 
most  draughtsmen  use  one  inch  or  one  and  one-half  inch  to  the  foot. 
With  drawings  made  at  these  scales  before  him,  the  draughtsman 
has  little  difficulty  in  making  his  sketch  correctly. 

As  any  design  becomes  more  attractive  by  a  neat  presentation,  it 
is  well  to  make  first  a  study  of  the  sketch  with  pencil,  obtaining  the 
general  proportions  and  outline.  Then,  to  save  the  time  of  making 
erasures  and  corrections,  lay  a  piece  of  tracing  paper  over  this  rough 
study  and  make  a  more  careful  drawing.  Repeat  the  process  of 
making  tracing  copies,  correcting  the  drawing  each  time  until  a 
satisfactory  sketch  is  obtained.  This  may  then  be  transferred  to 
bristol  board  for  the  final  rendering,  or  the  last  tracing  copy  is 
mounted  and  used  as  the  final  sketch.  This  is,  indeed,  a  good  way 
to  do. 

It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  rough  studies,  tracings  and  notes  made 
when  working  up  a  design,  either  by  pasting  in  scrap-books  or 
classifying  in  portfolios.  They  will  often  be  found  convenient  for 
duplicating  sketches,  suggesting  ideas,  etc. 

The  mediums  and  methods  of  rendering  the  final  sketch  are 
dependent  on  the  personality  of  the  draughtsman.  The  materials 


X 


w 

3 


PLATE   XX. 


LOUIS   XIV.    CHAIR.      IIOENTSCHEL   COLLECTION,    METROPOLITAN 
MUSEUM    OF    ART. 


PLATE    XXII. 


LOUIS    XV.    CHAIR.       HOENTSCHEL    COLLECTION,    METROPOLITAN 
MUSEUM    OF  ART. 


PLATE    XXTTI. 


LOUIS   XVI.    CIIATR.      HOENTSCHEL   COLLECTION,    METROPOLITAN 
MUSEUM    OF   ART. 


PLATE    XXIV. 


LOUIS   XVI.    CHAIR.      HOENTSCHEL   COLLECTION,    METROPOLITAN 
MUSEUM   OF  ART. 


ll"     PLATE   XXV. 


PEN    AND   INK   SKETCH    OF   A   LOUIS   XV.   CHAIR 


MEDIUMS.  -113 

used  by  one  designer  might  not  please  another,  and  each  may  hav« 
a  different  way  of  presenting  the  same  object.  Certain  methods 
have  been  used  by  the  best  men,  and  seem  to  give  satisfactory 
results,  but  someone  may  rightfully  claim  that  other  ways  are 
equally  as  good. 

The  student  can  study  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
leading  methods  and  choose  the  one  best  suited  to  himself. 

The  lead  pencil  is  an  exceedingly  pleasant  medium  for  furniture 
sketching  when  used  on  a  smooth,  soft  card,  like  ordinary  mounting 
board.  The  point  should  not  be  too  sharp,  and  with  pencils  of 
different  degrees  of  hardness  any  amount  of  elaboration  may  be 
given  the  sketch.  It  may  be  delicately  drawn  in  outline  or  it  may  be 
bold,  broad  and  shaded  if  desired.  Pen  and  ink  are  perhaps  the 
best  instruments  for  a  clear  indication  of  the  facts.  They  are  used 
by  the  majority  of  designers  of  experience,  and  many  seem  to 
prefer  them  to  any  other  mediums.  The  inks  available  are  the  liquid 
India  inks,  Prout's  brown,  and  writing  fluids. 

India  ink  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a  solid  black  line  that  does 
not  change  and  that  may  be  photographed  for  reproduction  readily. 
It  has  the  objection  of  being  thick  and  of  making  an  intensely  black 
line,  sometimes  too  heavy  on  smooth  paper,  unless  a  fine  pen  is  used. 

Prout's  brown  ink  is  not  as  intense  in  color  as  India  ink,  but  it 
requires  the  proper  combination  of  pen  and  paper  to  give  the  fine, 
delicate  line  best  suited  to  furniture  work. 

Writing  fluid,  when  used  with  a  smooth  surface  writing  paper  and 
a  moderately  fine  pen,  gives  very  pleasing  results.  It  flows  readily, 
produces  a  fine  line  without  the  use  of  an  exceedingly  fine  pen,  and 
though  not  black  when  first  used,  it  turns  shortly  after.  The  paper 
should  be  selected  according  to  the  ink  and  pen  used;  rough  paper 
requires  a  coarse  pen,  and  vice  versa.  Bristol  board,  India  ink  and 
a  Gillot  303  pen  make  a  good  combination. 

Sketches  may  be  made  in  color,  but  this  medium  sometimes  makes 
the  furniture  appear  clumsy  and  uninteresting.  The  amount  of 
small  detail  necessary  to  make  a  sketch  serviceable  is  lost  in  a  water 
color  if  it  is  broadly  done,  and  if  it  is  otherwise  the  drawing  requires 
considerable  time  in  rendering,  besides  seeming  hard  and  mechan- 
ical. Water  color  is  an  excellent  medium,  however,  for  sketches  of 
upholstered  work.  It  enables  the  draughtsman  to  show  the  color  of 
the  goods,  the  pattern,  and  also  to  indicate  the  tufting  with  the  least 
labor.  Occasionally  a  combination  of  line  drawing  and  color  is 


114 


THEORIES,    ETC. 


serviceable,   but  it   requires   judicious   handling,   or  the   result  is 
anything  but  artistic. 

The  purchaser  of  furniture  is  sometimes  at  a  loss  to  know  how 
much  is  necessary  to  furnish  a  room  comfortably,  and  he  can  be 
advised  most  .readily  by  the  designer  if  a  plan  of  the  room  is  made 
and  on  it  the  furniture  is  laid  out  at  scale.  A  convenient  scale  is 
one-half  inch  to  the  foot. 


LOUIS  XIV.  OUTLINE  PLANS. 


LOUIS   XV.  OUTLINE   PLANS. 


ADDENDUM 

The  "  Louis"  Furniture  Styles. 

IT  is  natural  that  the  historic  styles  of  furniture  should  corre- 
spond with  those  of  architecture.  The  architectural  arts  as 
practiced  after  the  Middle  Ages  may  be  divided  into  the  Renais- 
sance and  the  Rococo  styles.  The  styles  did  not  confine  themselves 
to  any  one  of  the  European  countries,  but  spread  from  one  to 
another,  developing  more  or  less  in  each  and  continuing  for  various 
periods. 

The  Renaissance  began  in  Italy  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 
reached  its  zenith  in  that  country  in  the  same  epoch,  but  it  was  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  it  became  the  model  for 
other  countries.  In  Italy  the  Renaissance,  sometimes  called  the 
Italian  style,  has  been  divided  into  two  varieties — the  early  Floren- 
tine and  Venetian,  and  the  Roman. 

The  first  of  these  was  confined  to  the  cities  which  gave  their 
names  to  it,  but  the  second  extended  over  Western  Europe,  where 
it  ran  its  course,  becoming  less  and  less  refined,  until  it  finally  gave 
way  to  the  Rococo. 

It  is  the  decline  of  the  Renaissance,  the  Rococo  and  the  reaction 
which  immediately  followed  it  which  now  concern  us  directly.  It 
was  then  that  the  elaborate,  showy  fashions  which  are  today  spoken 
of  as  the  "French  styles"  flourished.  The  better  tendencies  of  the 
Renaissance  influence  in  France  had  pretty  much  disappeared  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  natural  laws  of 
structural  design  were  neglected.  This  state  of  things  progressed 
until  it  reached  the  crisis  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  which  is 
especially  characterized  by  this  class  of  design.  A  reaction  resulted, 
producing  the  style  of  the  time  of  Louis  XVI.,  which  was  followed 
later  by  extreme  severity  in  design  at  the  time  of  the  Empire.  In 
speaking  of  the  styles,  it  is  usually  customary  to  couple  the  name  of 
the  country  with  that  of  the  style,  as  for  instance,  French  Renais- 
sance, German  Rococo.  This  is  not  always  a  definite  indication  of 


Il6  LOUIS    STYLES. 

the  exact  character  of  the  work,  however,  as  the  style  may  have 
extended  over  a  long  period  or  have  varied  greatly  during  the  time 
it  flourished. 

In  order  to  be  more  explicit,  the  name  of  the  ruler  is  substituted 
for  that  of  the  country,  thus :  Louis  XIV.,  Elizabethan,  etc.  When 
an  architect  or  cabinet  maker  has  made  himself  especially  prominent 
by  his  work,  which  has  a  certain  individuality  aside  from  the 
general  characteristic  of  the  times,  his  name  is  sometimes  linked 
with  that  of  the  ruler,  thus:  Lepautre's  Louis  XIV.,  or  Martin's 
Louis  XV.  work.  It  is  more  especially  true,  perhaps,  in  furniture 
work  that  the  maker's  name  is  used  as  the  title  of  a  style,  and  it 
is  then  usually  the  result  of  his  adhering  quite  closely  to  some  par- 
ticular methods  of  manufacture  rather  than  any  direct  variance 
from  the  prevailing  style.  When  the  name  of  a  maker  is  so  used 
we  ought  to  be  sufficiently  well  informed  to  know  at  once  the 
peculiarities  and  period,  even  though  the  dates  may  not  be  recalled. 
It  is  not  sufficient  to  know  that  Boulle  work  is  in  the  Louis  XIV. 
style;  we  must  know  what  Boulle  work  is,  and  also  what  is  the 
character  of  the  Louis  XIV.  style  that  distinguishes  it  from  other 
styles. 

When  we  analyze  furniture  of  the  Louis  XIV.  epoch  we  find 
that  under  the  elaborate  ornament  the  constructive  form  and  the 
strength  and  stability  is  retained.  Cabinets  and  similar  articles 
with  an  almost  severe  rectangular  body  without  curves  to  relieve 
them  are  common.  Sometimes  a  corner  is  enriched  by  a  post 
ending  in  a  short  curve  as  it  joins  the  foot,  and  occasionally  curved 
lines  are  used  freely.  Toward  the  end  of  the  period  they  became 
more  common,  until  finally  the  Louis  XV.  style,  with  its  tortuous 
lines,  was  evolved.  During  the  best  period  of  the  Louis  XIV. 
furniture  such  curves  as  are  introduced  are  curves  of  single  flexure ; 
or,  if  two  curves  are  employed,  they  are  generally  separated  by 
a  straight  line.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  plans  of  cabinets, 
bureaus,  frames  and  tops  of  tables. 

The  plans  in  the  Louis  XV.  style  of  work  are  made  up  of  lines 
having  greater  curvature.  Usually  the  curves  are  doubled  and 
flow  into  each  other  without  the  intervention  of  the  straight  line. 
The  straight  line  has  been  avoided  in  Louis  XV.  work,  and  also  to 
a  great  extent  all  flat  surfaces.  The  sides  and  faces  of  cabinets 
which  are  flat  in  both  the  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XVI.  periods  are 
during  the  Louis  XV.  period  bowed  or  swelled  out  in  the  middle. 


_ 


LOUIS   XIV. 


LOUIS   XV. 
TABLE  LEGS. 


LOUIS  XVI. 


LOUIS  XVI.  OUTLINE  PLAN. 


Ii8  LOUIS    STYLES. 

The  legs  of  Louis  XIV.  chairs  and  tables  are  quite  erect,  and 
though  the  outline  may  be  curved  or  broken,  there  is  generally  a 
sense  of  support.  If  a  line  is  drawn  vertically  through  the  middle 
of  the  leg  it  usually  divides  it  symmetrically.  Louis  XV.  legs  are 
bent  in  curves  of  contrary  flexure,  and  as  the  style  declined  these 
curves  became  so  great  as  to  destroy  all  feeling  of  structural  support. 

The  reaction  introduced  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  pro- 
duced delicate  turned  and  square  tapered  legs  without  any  curves. 
These  legs  are  not  nearly  as  heavy  as  those  of  the  Louis  XIV. 
work,  but  are  upright  and  symmetrical  on  a  vertical  axis. 

Aside  from  the  general  contour  of  furniture,  we  have  the  changes 
in  the  styles  of  ornamentation  to  aid  us  in  judging  the  period  of 
the  article. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  what  is  the  period  of  an  article  unless 
it  was  made  during  the  years  when  the  style  was  at  its  zenith,  for 
otherwise  it  represents  more  or  less  the  transition.  Details  that 
may  be  considered  as  characteristic  of  a  style  may  also  be  found 
in  that  preceding  or  following  it.  The  acanthus  leaf  is  an  orna- 
mental feature  found  in  all  styles,  but  the  details  of  the  lobes  and 
serrations  differ  somewhat  in  each.  During  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  it  has  a  strung-out  appearance,  as  if  blown  by  a  strong  wind, 
and  the  lobes  are  deeply  cut.  At  times  it  is  twisted  and  scrolled, 
so  as  to  have  a  strong  feeling  of  rotary  motion.  The  veinage  is 
marked  firmly  and  carried  well  back  on  the  stems.  In  the  next 
period  the  lobes  and  serrations  are  more  finely  cut,  each  apex  being 
acute  and  more  or  less  sharply  curled  at  the  end.  Each  division 
of  the  leaf  may  be  twisted  or  curled,  as  may  also  the  entire  leaf. 

The  Louis  XVI.  acanthus  is  less  free,  the  general  flow  of  the 
leaf  being  in  one  direction  The  parts  of  the  leaf  are  not  separated, 
as  much  as  in  either  of  the  other  styles,  but  each  lobe  is  divided 
and  serrated.  The  edges  are  not  sharp,  but  are  rounded  somewhat. 

The  acanthus  is  only  one  of  the  many  ornaments  employed.  In 
Louis  XIV.  work  there  usually  appears  a  series  of  small  pendant 
bell  flowers.  The  upper  is  the  largest,  the  others  diminishing  in 
size  downward.  At  times  they  are  used  in  conjunction  with  a 
radiating  scroll  ornament  resembling  a  conventionalized  scallop 
shell,  or  crown,  usually  composed  of  five  or  seven  rays  ending  in  a 
scroll.  A  similar  ornament  is  sometimes  used  as  a  head  piece 
for  masks  and  busts.  Later,  during  the  Louis  XV.  style,  this 
becomes  a  fully  formed  shell.  The  head  of  a  satyr  or  faun  in 


LOUIS  XVI  METAL  ORNAMENT 


LOUIS  XV.  METAL  ORNAMENT.        LOUIS  XV.  END  OF   MOULDING  AND 

SHELL   ORNAMENT. 


4 


LOUIS  XIV.  SHELL  AND  HUSK  ORNAMENTS. 


120  LOUIS    STYLES. 

brass  is  applied  at  the  upper  end  of  table  legs  and  the  cloven  hoof 
is  used  as  a  foot. 

Bronze  applique  ornaments,  representing  the  Medusa's  head  or 
mask,  crowned  by  the  rays  mentioned  above ;  trophies  with  a  mono- 
gram ;  coats  of  mail,  etc.,  are  common,  though  they  are  not  confined 
to  the  style  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  conical  stub  foot,  either  ornamented  by  spiral  flutes,  acan- 
thus or  turned  mouldings,  and  the  hoof,  seem  to  be  a  usual  support 
for  Louis  XIV.  cabinets. 

A  popular  ornament  for  Louis  XIV.  inlay  is  an  irregular  scroll 
resembling  the  tendrils  of  a  vine. 

Louis  XV.  ornament  abounds  in  shell  and  scroll  work,  inter- 
twined with  wreaths,  garlands  and  naturalistic  flowers,  the  whole 
resembling  a  series  of  C's  linked  together.  The  end  of  nearly 
every  scroll  or  curve  is  a  leaf,  either  half  or  fully  developed,  and 
centre  ornaments  are  often  a  shell,  from  which  branch  out  scrolls 
and  curves. 

The  head  of  a  female  figure  or  a  satyr,  used  extensively  during 
the  Louis  IV.  period,  is  replaced  by  a  combination  of  scrolls  and 
leaves,  with  possibly  a  group  of  flowers  or  a  shell  introduced  as  a 
centre  motive. 

Chairs  which  before  this,  and  again  later,  had  straight  backs  and 
legs,  are  made  with  bandy  legs,  curved  arms  and  an  irregular 
contour  for  the  backs.  Panel  mouldings  are  not  mitred  at  a  right 
angle  but  are  united  at  the  corners  by  a  curve.  Often  the  moulding 
is  bent  to  a  curve  throughout  its  entire  length. 

The  Louis  XVI.  style  is  in  many  respects  more  severe  than  those 
which  had  preceded  it,  and  it  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  renewed 
interest  in  classic  forms  induced  by  the  excavations  at  Pompeii  at 
the  time.  This  style  did  away  with  the  many  scrolls  and  curved 
forms,  substituting  straight  lines  and  rectangular  panels. 

Ornamental  metal  work  continued  to  be  an  important  feature, 
and  was  exquisitely  modelled.  The  woodwork  was  veneered  and 
inlaid  in  geometrical  or  diaper  patterns  of  various  colored  woods, 
with  flower  designs,  wreaths,  etc.,  in  the  centre  of  a  panel,  bor- 
dered with  delicate  gilt  mouldings.  Table  and  chair  legs  became 
straight,  turned  or  square,  tapering  towards  the  bottom  and  fluted. 
The  ornamental  work  of  the  period  is  largely  made  up  of  leaves, 
flowers,  wreaths  and  garlands  extremely  well  modelled  and  na- 
turalistic. 


LOUIS  XV. 


ACANTHUS. 


122  LOUIS    STYLES. 

A  characteristic  ornament  is  a  small  husk  and  bead,  which  fills 
the  fluting  of  the  legs  near  the  bottom  or  top,  but  rarely  if  ever 
extending  the  full  length.  Aside  from  the  general  forms  and  the 
ornamental  details  described  above,  there  are  varieties  of  material 
and  workmanship  introduced  by  the  furniture  makers  in  each  style. 

The  desire  for  great  show  and  magnificence  in  the  furniture  and 
decoration  which  was  exhibited  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
has  perhaps  never  been  exceeded.  In  looking  over  a  collection  of 
furniture  of  this  period,  two  distinct  varieties  are  seen.  One  is 
ornamented  with  inlay,  veneers  and  metal  applique  ornaments;  the 
other  is  richly  carved.  The  inlay  is  of  such  a  peculiar  kind  that 
once  observed  it  is  readily  recognized  again.  Firstly,  because  of 
the  materials ;  secondly,  because  of  the  style  of  the  ornament.  This 
work  was  made  by  Boulle,  the  most  celebrated  cabinetmaker  of 
the  Louis  XIV.  reign,  and  it  is  known  as  Boulle  work.  Cabinets, 
tables,  etc.,  decorated  in  this  manner  are  called  Boulle  cabinets, 
Boulle  tables,  etc. 

Andre  Charles  Boulle  was  probably  born  November  n,  1642. 
His  first  work,  executed  during  his  apprenticeship  to  his  father,  is 
not  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  the  parent,  but  in  1679  he 
was  permitted  to  work  for  His  Majesty,  and  received  the  titles  of 
architect,  engraver  and  carver.  Prior  to  this  he  had  obtained  honors 
because  of  his  skill  as  a  maker  of  inlay,  gilder  and  chaser.  He 
received  large  prices  for  his  work,  but  was  always  in  need  of 
money,  owing  to  his  passion  for  collecting  prints,  drawings  and 
objects  of  art,  which  caused  him  to  spend  all  he  could  earn. 

Furniture  by  Boulle  has  a  simple  outline,  and  is  dependent  on 
the  brass  mounts  and  inlays  for  its  enrichments.  It  is  inlaid  in 
colored  woods,  brass,  copper  and  tortoise  shell  of  different  colors. 
He  also  applied  to  his  furniture  gilt  bronzes,  either  figures  or  bas- 
reliefs,  and  mouldings,  often  modelled  by  himself.  The  original 
use  of  these  chased  brass  mouldings  was  to  cover  the  edges  of  the 
inlay  veneers,  but  afterwards  brass  mounts  were  added  as  enriched 
surface  decorations. 

Boulle  sometimes  worked  from  his  own  designs,  but  more  often 
from  those  of  Jean  Berain,  whose  arabesques  and  grotesques  form 
the  motive  for  much  of  the  inlay.  At  the  beginning  of  his  career 
Boulle  probably  confined  his  inlay  work  largely  to  the  use  of 
different  colored  woods,  and  he  never  entirely  abandoned  them. 
Later  he  executed  the  style  of  work  by  which  he  is  best  known. 


<LOUIS  XW, 


<>Lours  xrv. 


LOUIS  XV 


4-OUIS  XVtt. 


124  LOUIS    STYLES. 

This  consists  of  brass  inlaid  on  a  ground  of  black  tortoise  shdl, 
and  the  whole  surrounded  by  an  ornamental  frame  of  modelled 
brasswork.  He  at  times  used  a  background  of  different  colors  by 
applying  the  shell  over  a  surface  colored  according  to  the  effect 
desired. 

By  way  of  obtaining  a  variety  and  for  economy,  Boulle  some- 
times made  two  similar  inlaid  articles,  of  which  one  had  a  shell 
ground  inlaid  with  brass  and  the  other  a  brass  ground  inlaid  with 
shell.  The  ornament  being  the  same  in  both,  they  were  obtained 
at  one  sawing  by  counterchanging  the  parts,  with  no  waste  of 
material.  Before  he  died  (February  29,  1732)  the  fashion  tor 
furniture  veneered  with  shell  began  to  give  way  to  that  of  satin- 
wood,  with  brass  applique  ornaments. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. ,  Boulle  work 
became  a  fad  among  collectors,  and  several  cabinet  makers  are 
known  to  have  made  copies  of  original  pieces,  but  they  are  said  to 
be  weak  and  to  show  fussy  chasing  and  tricky  expression  when 
compared  to  the  bold,  vigorous  work  of  Boulle  himself. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  state  that  Boulle  furniture  is  suited 
for  decorative  purposes  only,  and  not  for  practical  use,  as  the 
shell  and  brass  veneers  are  constantly  peeling  off. 

The  second  class  of  work  belonging  to  the  reign  of  the  "Grand 
King"  was  richly  carved  in  wood.  Some  of  this  was  made  by  Jean 
Lepautre,  who  began  life  as  a  cabinetmaker,  but  later  practiced 
architecture.  His  real  influence,  however,  was  felt  as  an  orna- 
mentist  and  was  produced  by  engravings  of  his  compositions.  His 
ornament  is  not  as  delicate  as  that  of  Berain,  but  it  is  more  archi- 
tectural and  is  full  of  character.  It  is  based  largely  on  the  Roman 
work,  and  is  crowded  with  figures  entwined  with  leaves,  scrolls,  etc. 

Tables  of  this  period  are  supported  by  legs  resembling  a  square 
baluster,  decorated  with  masks  and  rich  foliated  ornaments.  Be- 
neath the  top  or  suspended  from  the  middle  of  the  frame  of  the 
table  is  a  centre  ornament  of  perforated  carving.  Some  of  the 
console  tables  have  legs  curving  in  an  arc,  from  the  top  downward 
toward  the  centre  of  the  table  and  entwined  with  dragons  or  griffins. 
At  the  upper  end  of  the  leg,  where  it  joins  the  frame,  is  perhaps 
a  mask  or  figure.  The  tops  of  these  tables  are  always  of  rare 
marbles. 

Chairs  have  a  rectangular  back,  a  carved  frame  ornamented  with 
foliated  and  cartouche  forms.  The  legs  of  the  same  square  baluster 


LOUIS    STYLES.  125 

form  we  have  noticed  on  the  tables  and  the  whole  chair  has  an 
appearance  of  ceremony  and  pomp.  The  seat  and  back  are  of 
cane,  or  upholstered  with  tapestry  of  the  Gobelins  or  Beauvais  make. 
Such  was  the  chair  used  in  royal  galleries  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  its  use  was  largely  restricted  by  etiquette. 

When  Louis  XIV.  died  his  successor  was  too  young  to  rule,  and 
it  was  during  the  Regency,  a  time  of  corruption  and  extravagance, 
that  stateliness  of  the  salon  gave  way  to  the  elaborate  over- 
ornamented  boudoir,  and  the  change  in  furniture  style  took  place. 

Louis  XV.  reigned  from  1715  to  1774,  and  the  style  of  furniture 
associated  with  his  name  is  that  belonging  to  the  best  period  of 
the  French  Rococo. 

The  fashion  for  furniture  of  ebony  and  inlay  of  shell  gave  way 
to  that  ornamented  with  veneers  of  rosewood,  amaranth  and  brass 
applique. 

Elaborately  carved  woodwork,  wholly  or  partly  covered  with  gold 
leaf;  lacquer  work,  with  Japanese  panels,  paintings  of  shepherds, 
nymphs,  saytrs  and  love  scenes  was  introduced.  The  artist  whose 
work  exercised  a  great  deal  of  influence  on  furniture  at  this  time 
was  Charles  Cressent  (1685-1768).  His  grandfather  was  a  cabinet- 
maker and  his  father  a  sculptor.  The  cabinet  work  is  but  a 
secondary  part  in  Cressent/ s  furniture.  It  is  but  a  foundation  on 
which  is  placed  richly  modelled  bronze  ornaments  of  a  light  and 
delicate  character,  quite  different  from  that  of  Boulle,  and  yet  not 
so  small  in  detail  as  that  which  was  employed  in  the  reign  of  the 
next  king.  One  peculiar  feature  of  the  bas-reliefs  by  Cressent  is 
the  representation  of  monkeys  in  acrobatic  or  musical  acts.  These 
subjects  are  carefully  chased,  well  composed,  and  are  an  affectation 
of  ornament  quite  a  la  mode  at  the  time. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  Chinese  lacquer  work  began 
to  gain  favor,  and  several  furniture  makers  endeavored  to  imitate 
it.  A  Dutchman  was  the  first  to  successfully  do  this,  but  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  (about  1744)  a  Simon  Martin,  the  youngest 
of  several  brothers,  varnish  makers,  was  granted  the  exclusive  right 
to  manufacture  all  sorts  of  work  after  the  manner  of  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese. 

It  was  not,  properly  speaking,  a  new  invention,  but  Martin  per- 
fected the  experiments  made  by  his  predecessors  and  gave  a  greater 
field  to  the  production. 

The  brothers  Martin  attempted  at  first  to  only  imitate  the  Chinese 


126  LOUIS    STYLES. 

lacquers,  and  in  working  thus  they  discovered  the  composition 
Vernis  Martin,  which  afterward  came  so  much  in  vogue.  In  the 
beginning  they  applied  it  to  the  decoration  of  carriages  and 
sedan  chairs,  but  soon  its  use  extended  to  furniture.  They  did 
not  copy  exactly  Oriental  lacquer,  but  painted  ornaments  on  a 
ground  of  yellow,  brown,  blue  or  green,  spangled  with  gold.  The 
subjects  are  usually  pastoral,  surrounded  with  a  border  composed 
of  garlands  of  flowers.  Many  of  the  compositions  seem  to  have 
been  inspired  by  Watteau.  Louis  XVI.  reigned  from  1774  to  1793. 
During  his  reign  there  were  many  makers  whose  names  are  familiar 
to  those  who  have  studied  French  furniture,  but  not  one  of  them 
introduced  any  individuality  that  has  made  him  known  to  the 
public.  Many  articles  were  ornamented  with  extremely  rich  and 
delicate  chased  brasswork,  principally  of  a  floral  character.  Others 
were  of  carved  wood,  gilded  or  painted. 

The  hardwoods  showing  a  rich  grain,  like  rosewood,  mahogany 
and  maple,  were  used  as  veneers,  arranged  as  plain  panels  or  cut  and 
glued  together  in  such  a  manner  that  the  grain  formed  a  pattern 
on  the  panel. 

In  the  centre  of  the  panels,  inlaid  in  colored  woods,  were  wreaths, 
bunches  of  flowers  and  vases  of  fruits.  These  panels  were  sur- 
rounded by  a  border  of  diaper  work  in  three  or  four  quiet  colored 
veneers.  Chairs  and  sofas  have  generally  a  straight  turned  leg, 
which  is  fluted  either  vertically  or  has  the  fluting  carried  spirally 
around  it.  The  backs  of  the  chairs  are  rectangular  or  oval,  with 
the  frame  elaborately  ornamented  by  bead  and  spindle,  heart  and 
tongue,  or  similar  mouldings.  In  the  middle  of  the  top  rail  of  the 
back  is  a  carved  bunch  of  flowers,  or  some  device  tied  with  a 
riband.  Often  the  lovers'  knot  alone  is  the  central  ornament. 


LOUIS   XIV.   INLAY. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


•  ' 

1.871-1^1* 

RECORDED  19  198 

4 

| 

1    •  : 

71985 

zoozTrjjnr 

General  Library 

University  of  California 

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(E16028lO)476B 


vn 


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